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The 

Theory and Practice 

OF 

Working Plans 

(FOREST ORGANIZATION) 



BY 

A. B. RECKNAGEL, B.A., M.F. 

it 

Professor of Forestry 
Cornell University 



FIRST EDITION 
FIRST THOUSAND 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 
1913 






Copyright 1913 by 
A. B. RECKNAGEL 



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PEESS OF THE PUBLISHERS PRINTING COMPANY, NEW YORK, U. S. A. 



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PREFACE 

This book does not pretend to present any original theories 
of Forest Organization, but merely the best of European efforts 
along this line adapted to the present needs of American forestry. 
The necessary data were gathered in the course of a year's study 
abroad, and, in their application, the experience gained in five 
years of similar work for the forest service in various parts of 
the United States was constantly kept in mind. The theoret- 
ical part has, therefore, been reduced to the minimum; simi- 
larly, the description of such intensive methods of regulating 
the yield as that by area and volume in periods has been merely 
sketched for the sake of completeness, since its application to 
America is of the far distant future, if ever. In a word, while 
sacrificing nothing to the completeness necessary in a text- 
book, the aim has been to make the book of value not only to 
the student, but also to the practising forester, and hence theory 
has in each case been subordinated to practice. 
x It will be ample reward for the time and labor spent, if this 
book takes its humble place in the growing list of American 
text-books on forestry. 

Grateful acknowledgment is made to those who so unself- 
ishly assisted in the collection of the subject-matter. 

A. B. RECKNAGEL. 
Dresden, September, 19 12. 



Ill 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Preface iii 

Introduction, xi 

Value and Need of Working Plans, xi 

Scope of Working Plans xi 

Sphere of Working Plans xii 



PART ONE 

Foundations of Working Plans 

chapter I 
Preliminary Basis 

PAGE 

Section I. The Normal Forest and its Attributes, i 

The Increment, i 

The Growing Stock, . . . . • . 4 

Distribution of the Age Classes, 4 

Section 2. Collection of Data. — Reconnaissance, 8 

Preliminary Work, , „ 8 

Survey of Area . . 9 

Timber Estimates, 10 

Requisites, 10 

Base Lines, . 10 

The Strips, ..12 

Reconnaissance Estimates 14 

Topographic Notes, „ 16 

Time of Survey and Estimate, 16 

Use of Yield Tables, ...17 

Cost, . . 17 

Forest Description 17 

Division of Area, 20 

Designations of Divisions, 23 

Boundaries of Divisions, 23 

Maps and Tables, „ . . 26 

General Stand Table, 25 

Age Class Table, , 31 

V 



VI CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Section 3. Determination of Methods of Treatment 33 

Governing Conditions, . . . 33 

The Unit of Regulation, 33 

Silvicultural Method of Management, 35 

Object of Management, 37 

The Rotation, 38 



CHAPTER II 
Regulation of Yield 

Definition, „ „ ,42 

Section 1. Determination of Yield, 43 

By Area (1), 44 

By volume. Von Mantel's Method (2), 47 

Methode de Masson (3), 49 

By Current Annual Increment (4), 49 

Formula Methods: Austrian Formula (5), .... 52 

Karl's Method (6) 55 

Hundeshagen's Method (7), . . 59 

Breymann's Method (8), ... 61 

Heyer's Method (9), . . . . . 63 

Summary and Comparison of the Formula Methods, . 65 

French Method (10), 66 

Indian Method (11), > 72 

Diameter Class Method (12) 75 

By Area and Volume. Russian Method (13) 78 

Direct Method (14), . 81 

Hufnagl's Method (15) 82 

The Stand Method (16), ....... 84 

The Period Methods (17), 89 

Review of the Methods of Determining the Yield, 94 

Section 2. Distribution of Yield 96 

Selection of Stands to be Cut 97 

Mapping of Stands to be Cut, 98 

Cutting Series, 99 

Plan of Cutting, 100 

General Cutting Plan, 101 

Annual Cutting Plan, . 103 

Section 3. Regulation of Yield in Special Cases 104 

I. Regulation of Abnormal Forests, . 104 

II. Regulation of Transition Forests, 106 

III. Regulation of Wood-lots, .... 108 

IV. Regulation of Turpentine Forests, 108 



CONTENTS VI 1 

CHAPTER III 
The Working-Plan Document 

PAGE 

Section I. Contents and Form, 113 

1. Orientation, 115 

2. Foundations, 116 

3. Recommendations, 119 

4. Regulation, 121 

Section 2. Outlines for Working Plan, 122 

A. Prussian Outline, 122 

B. Saxon Outline, 124 

C. American Outline (suggested). Complete Forest Plan, . . . 124 
Section 3. The Planting Plan, 128 

Annual Planting Plan, • 130 

General Planting Plan 132 

Section 4. Control and Revision of Working Plan, 133 

Control Book, 134 

PART TWO 

Practice of Working Plans 

CHAPTER I 

In Europe 

PAGE 

Section 1. Germany 137 

I. Prussia, 137 

II. Bavaria, 147 

III Saxony, 159 

IV. Wiirttemberg, 163 

V. Baden, 164 

VI. Alsace-Lorraine, '. . 167 

Section 2. France, 171 

Division of Area, 172 

Method of Determining the Yield, 173 

Distribution of the Periodic Cutting Areas, 175 

Determination of the Allowed Annual Cut, 176 

Section 3. Austria, 177 

Division of Area, 180 

Estimates and Forest Description, 182 

Determination of the Yield, 185 

Control and Revision of the Working Plan, 186 

Section 4. Resume, 187 



VI 11 CONTENTS 

CHAPTER II 

In America 

PAGE 

Section I. Early Beginnings, 190 

Section 2. The New Reconnaissance, 191 

Current Outline for Forest Working Plans, 192 

Section 3. Present Procedure, 201 

Forest Plans, 202 

Preliminary Plans, . 203 

Working Plans, 208 

Annual Plans 211 

Outline for the Plan of Silvicultural Management, 213 

Timber Estimates 213 

Forest Types, 214 

Object of Management, 215 

Silvicultural System, 215 

Regulation of Yield, 216 

Regulation of Cut, 216 

Policy 217 

Stumpage Rates, 217 

Utilization, 218 

Timber Business Statistics, 220 

Planting, 224 

Timber Reconnaissance, 226 

Investigations, 226 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Plate I. — Cutting Series and Compartment Lines in Spruce, Saxony. 

Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Plate II. — A Reconnaissance Survey Party, Florida, 10 

Plate III. — A Reconnaissance Survey Camp, Florida, . . . ". . 16 ^ 

Plate IV. — Fig. I. A Compartment Regenerated by Shelterwood Cut- 
ting, Baden. Fig. 2. A Compartment Regenerated by Border 
Cutting, Wurttemberg, 36 

Plate V. — Road Forming a Compartment Boundary Line, Saxony, . 160 

Plate VI. — A Burned Area, Forming a Subcompartment, Arizona, . . 2081/ 



FlG. I. — Sketch Map of part of a Block, showing Compartments, Sub- 
compartments, Age Classes, and Cutting Series, 27 

Fig. 2. — Turpentine Regulation: Number of Crops Operative An- 
nually, 112 V 



IX 



INTRODUCTION 

VALUE AND NEED OF WORKING PLANS 

Systematic forest management demands that the yield in 
timber or other forest products be regulated according to time 
and place. This apportioning of the yield is the sphere of Forest 
Organization through its instrument, the Working Plan. 

Forest Organization is co-ordinate in importance with Silvi- 
culture, Forest Protection, and all the other major branches of 
the science of Forestry. It makes use of them all and combines 
their several teachings into a harmonious whole — the forest 
properly adjusted. 

SCOPE OF WORKING PLANS 

In its broadest sense a complete Forest Plan deals not only 
with Silvicultural Management of the timber resources, but may 
cover any or all of the following subjects: 

i. General administration. 

2. Silvicultural management. 

3. Grazing management. 

4. Permanent improvements. 

5. Forest protection. 

6. Uses of forest land. 

Since the prime object of any forest is the growing of timber, 
the silvicultural management is the most important; it is also 
the most difficult. The present work will, therefore, confine itself 
to this phase of the complete forest plan. The French call this 
phase "Amenagement" — "Management"; the Germans call it 
"Forsteinrichtung"— "Forest Adjustment" or "Forest Organ- 
ization." The latter title seems preferable since "management" 

xi 



ill INTRODUCTION' 

is commonly considered to include Mensuration, Valuation, etc.* 
Unfortunately the title ''Working Plan'' has been long used in 
America to designate not only the document, but the whole 
subject of Forest Organization. However, as Dr. Fernowsavs:f 
"It is difficult to eradicate poor terms once in the world." vet 
"we must admit also the use of synonyms, for. after all. language 
is partly a matter of taste and only partly of rule." The word 
"Working Plan'' has. therefore, been retained for the present, 
but "Forest Organization" is used synonymously with it to 
designate the subject of regulated Silvicultural Management. 

SPHERE OF WORKING PLANS 

The working plan is not confined to such forests as are 
managed with the idea of a sustained yield, but is equally adapted 
to the exploitation forest; i.e.. forests which are to be logged 
within the next ten or twenty- years. As in every- other business 
the advantages of systematization are obvious; the working 
plan secures these advantages. At the same time it is usually 
to the interest of the owner to leave the tract in as favorable 
a condition as possible for future growth without the undue 
expenditure of time, timber, or money. The working plan 
secures this by so organizing the logging operations that the 
natural reproductive powers of the forest are brought into full 
play instead of being nullified by the fortuities of haphazard 
and often unnecessarily destructive logging. 

The sphere of Forest Organization therefore embraces all 
forests and is applicable to all classes of owners, large and small. 

"A Classification for Forestry Literature," Yale Forest School, Bul- 
letin I, 1912. 

t "F. Q., M Vol. IX., Xo. 3, p. 427. 



PART ONE 
FOUNDATIONS OF WORKING PLANS 



FOUNDATIONS OF WORKING PLANS 



CHAPTER I 

PRELIMINARY BASIS 

SECTION ONE 

THE NORMAL FOREST AND ITS ATTRIBUTES 

At the very root of Forest Organization lies the idea of a 
Normal Forest; that is, one which has a normal distribution 
of the age classes and a normal increment; these two factors 
will, of themselves, result in a normal growing stock. Such a 
forest probably does not exist; it is merely a theoretical ideal 
towards which to strive. 

Assuming, therefore, that every forest is more or less ab- 
normal, it is necessary to determine the degree of abnormality 
in the following directions: 

i. Increment. 

2. Growing Stock. 

3. Distribution of the Age Classes. 

In this connection it should be noted that while normality in 
1 and 3 of themselves result in normality in 2, the reverse is 
by no means the case. A normal growing stock may exist in a 
forest with only a single age class. Valuable as its determina- 
tion is, therefore, it should never be used as the sole criterion 
of regulating the yield. 

The Increment 

The determination of the increment is the province of Forest 
Mensuration; without trespassing on this subject, so admirably 



A THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

covered in Mr. Graves' textbook,* it is worth while to consider 
the matter solely in its relation to Forest Organization. 

Not every method of regulating the yield requires the deter- 
mination of the volume increment; e.g., the Method of Von Man- 
tel or the Methode de Masson. Again, it is possible to regulate 
the yield by increment alone (Hufnagl's Method). But, as is 
pointed out in Chapter II, most methods of regulating the yield 
require a determination of the increment. 

The normal increment is that given in yield tables: this is 
required for several of the "formula methods." Where the real 
increment is to be taken from yield tables, the values given 
in the table must be reduced by the actual factor of density, 
since yield tables are always for fully stocked stands. 

Where yield tables are not available, the increment must 
be determined on the ground, either by applying the increment 
per cent of representative trees of the stand, or else by calipering 
sample areas and figuring their increment by means of diameter- 
growth and diameter-volume tables. The former (and yield 
tables) is better for nearly even-aged stands; the latter method 
for all- aged stands. 

Where diameter-growth tables are lacking, stump analyses 
can be made. 

For determining current annual increment the use of an 
increment borer is deserving of wider popularity than it has 
heretofore enjoyed in America. Where no increment borer is 
obtainable, the representative trees, selected according to any 
of the standard methods (Draudt, Urich, etc.) can be cut into 
at breast height and the rings on the last inch of radius counted 
on the horizontal under-cut. 

Schneider's formula then applies: 

400 
p = —r (or 450 or 500 according as the height-growth of the 

tree is poor, average, or good), 



* "Forest Mensuration," Henry Solon Graves. New York, John Wiley 
& Sons. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 6 

where n = number of rings of annual growth in the last inch 
and d = diameter breast high, in inches. 

The growth per cent must always be translated into figures 
of actual volume. For example: 

A spruce tree 28 inches in diameter at breast height, of 
average height-growth, shows 8 rings in the last inch, bored at 
breast height. The increment per cent according to Schneider's 
formula is 

Assuming a stand of 2,400 feet board measure per acre, the 
volume increment (current annual) would be, if this were a 
sample tree: 

2,400 X 2 

— = 48 board feet per acre per annum. 

100 

Whether the current annual or the mean annual increment 
is to be determined depends on the Method of Regulating the 
Yield which is to be adopted (Chapter II). However, in general 
it may be said: 

The "formulae methods" usually require the determination 
of the mean annual increment. Methods by Area and Volume 
usually employ the current annual increment pro-rated for the 
next decade or two decades. Indeed, for the "Period" Methods 
it usually suffices to determine the increment of only such stands 

whose age is more than half the rotation f -J or even only those 

of the two highest age classes of, say, 20 years each. In either 
case it is not usually necessary to determine painstakingly the 
exact increment of each stand, but rather to correctly approx- 
imate the increment in each Working Figure — i.e., the unit area 
for which the yield is to be regulated; for it is evident that 
in comparison with the volume of merchantable timber the 
increment is a relatively small amount. It is a useful fact that 
in stands approaching maturity (not overmature) the mean 
annual and current annual increment remains virtually the same 



4 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

for about ten years; since the former is simply the volume 

divided by the age ( — J, a simple way is thereby opened to 

approximate the current annual increment in mature, even- 
aged stands. 

The Growing Stock 

The normal growing stock is expressed by the formula: 

ri 

nv = — 

2 

where nv = normal volume of growing stock, r = rotation, and 
i = the normal increment, nv can also be determined directly 
from yield tables constructed by measurements of fully stocked 
stands. That the normal volume is possible even with abnormal 
arrangement of the age classes is clear if one considers a unit 
of area covered with a normal steplike gradation of the age 
classes, the same area half bare and half stocked with trees 
whose age equals r (the rotation), or again, the whole area 
stocked with trees whose age equals }4r. In each case by the 

formula nv = — the growing stock would be apparently normal, 

yet true normality exists only in the first case. 

Distribution of the Age Classes 

The correct distribution of the age classes is theoretically like a 
series of equal sized steps, growing higher towards the prevailing 
storm direction. However, this theoretical ideal is never 
achieved; it suffices that each age class has an approximately 
equal representation on the area which is to have a sustained 
yield; in fact, without a fairly even distribution of the age 
classes sustained yield on a given area is impossible. 

Twenty years is commonly taken as one age class, though 
sometimes 10 and sometimes 36 years is used. In any case 
the rotation must be a simple multiple of the age class. It is 
customary to number the age classes from I up, beginning with 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 5 

the youngest.* Thus for an 8o-year rotation there are four 
age classes of twenty years each; a fifth age class would contain 
all stands older than r (the rotation). 

Where stands are fairly even-aged, but conditions are too 
extensive to permit the exact assignment to definite age classes, 
the general classification into: 

merchantable 

near merchantable 

intermediate 

young growth 

will serve the purpose. It is of the utmost importance to get 
some conception of how the age classes are distributed. If it 
is possible, the age should be determined by counting the annual 
rings on recent stumps, but in default of this it is useful to note 
the age class roughly as: 

overmature (more than rotation age) 

M mature (of rotation age down to yi thereof) 

Y young (from lowest age to y 2 rotation) 

The perfect selection forest is, of course, all aged and hence 
has no age classes, or rather all age classes are inextricably 
intermingled. But where the age differences are not to exceed 
K or % of the rotation, the stand can be classified according to 
its average age, or, more exactly, according to the proportion 
of space each age occupies. For example: 320 acres of spruce 
might contain 160 acres of trees 70 years old, 100 of trees 60 
years old, and 60 acres of trees only 40 years old. The average 
age here would be 61 years; for: 

160 X 70 + 100 X 60 -f- 60 X 40 
=61 years. 

320 

Where, in uneven-aged forest, the age classes are so inter- 
mingled that they cannot be distinguished by area but only 
by volume (from the diameter-classes in the estimates, see 

* In Prussia this is reversed, I. is the oldest age class. 



6 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

volume .. ,, 

Section 2), the average age = the increment > g -g-> lf the uneven ' 

aged forest has three main age classes: 

100 year class with 2,000 feet board measure 
60 " " " 1,200 " 
5 o " " " 800 " 

2000 + 1 200 + 800 
then the average age would be — — g^ - 7M years. 

100 60 50 

The ordinary selection forest would show the following dis- 
tribution of ages by area: 

E.g., 900 acres of selection forest with a rotation of 150 years 

and a cutting cycle of 30 years would normally contain— -5 

age classes, not distinct in space but in area, as follows: 

, , 900 x 30 . 
Trees 1- 30 years old —^3 — = l8 ° acres 

» 3I _ 60 " " " =180 " 

" 61- 90 " " " =180 " 

" 91-120 " " " =180 " 

" 121-150 " " " =180 " 

Total, 900 acres 

A convenient way to express the age limits and average age 

50 — 100 
in an uneven-aged stand is by the expression - — — where, m 

the example above, the age varies from 50 to 100 years and the 
average has been determined as 71 years (strictly 71.4 years). 
Where the average age has not been arithmetically determined 
the approximate age figures will, at least, serve as a valuable 

O-M 
guide. Or even the letters 0, Y, M may be used, e.g., —q- 

would be a stand Mature to Overmature with the average 
Overmature, i.e., in excess of the rotation age. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS / 

Nor should it be forgotten that certain species, such as fir 
and spruce, often withstand decades of suppression during which 
their growth is almost nil. In determining their age this "core 
of suppression" should, therefore, be disregarded. 

Areas that are being regenerated by shelterwood methods 
fall into two age classes, divided according to the per cent of 
density of the original stand. For example, a shelterwood cutting 
in a 90-year-old stand covering 200 acres of which only 40 per 
cent of the stand remained uncut would be apportioned : 80 acres 
to the higher-age class and 120 acres to the lowest or to the 
"blanks" if no reproduction was on the ground. Where less 
than 20 per cent of the original stand remains on a cutting area 
or burn and the density of stocking is less than .3 (Section 2) 
and there is no reproduction the area is, temporarily at least, 
classed with the "blanks." 

The age classes are differentiated by species only if there is 
a marked difference in their value. 

There are two graphic ways of comparing the actual with the 
normal distribution of the age classes. One is by plotting the 
normal and the actual area of each age class on cross-section 
paper, using the co-ordinates for age and the abcissae for area. 
The normal distribution will, of course, be a straight line; the 
actual a zigzag, now rising above, now falling below the hori- 
zontal line of normality. 

The other method is that of rectangular blocks, the normal 
age classes being equal-sized and placed next to the unequal 
blocks showing the actual size of the various age classes. 

It is always of advantage to compare the real and the normal 
age-class distribution; for it is a criterion of a sustained yield 
and, in conjunction with the increment, determines the degree 
of approach toward a normal forest. 



8 THE THEORY AND PEACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

SECTION TWO 

COLLECTION OF DATA— RECONNAISSANCE 

Here again Forest Organization touches upon the domain 
of Forest Mensuration and, in part, of Engineering. Hence only 
the salient points affecting the Working Plan will be treated. 

Preliminary Work 

Before the field work is begun, all available data should be 
gathered from the records, along the following lines: 
i. Area and boundaries of forest. 

2. Best existing estimates of timber. 

3. Approximate distribution of species. 

4. Salient topographic features. 

5. Past cuttings and their results; stumpage prices. 

6. Classes of material utilized; prices obtained; market con- 

ditions. 

7. Previous working plan or previous silvical studies; vol- 

ume, growth, or yield tables. 

8. Best maps available. 

Armed with these data, the Forest Organizer should then 
make a preliminary trip over the forest so as to gain a general 
familiarity therewith and the better to formulate his plan of 
•campaign. Wherever possible, he should be accompanied by 
the owner, the administrator, or both. 

A conference should always be had between the owner or 
administrator, or both, and the Forest Organizer. The wishes 
and objects of the owner are basic in outlining a plan of silvi- 
cultural management and determine what data are requisite and 
what degree of detail is necessary in securing these data. The 
permissible cost of field work should also be decided. It is well 
if tHe results of this conference are put in writing and the docu- 
ment signed by each of the participants. 



the theory and practice of working plans 9 

Survey of Area 

A good map is an essential part of every Working Plan. 
The map need not be elaborate, but it must be accurate. 

Where the land involved has not been surveyed, this must 
form a part of the field work, though it can often be done in 
conjunction with the estimating. In every case, reconnaissance 
involves at least the retracement of the principal land lines and 
their fixation on the ground and on the map. Especial attention 
must be given to the boundary lines. 

It is very serviceable to post boundary and interior corners 
with fire warnings or similar placards, in pathless forests. These 
are most helpful in indicating the position of corners, especially 
if they are stamped with rubber stencils and indelible ink to 
show what corner it is. Thus where the land is sectionized, the 
section corner would be posted and perhaps also where an im- 
portant section or township line crossed a much-traveled road 
or trail. The object is to make the results of field surveys or 
retracement of old survey lines available not only on the map, 
but on the ground. 

The extent to which topography should be shown depends 
on the uses of the map. Where a detailed plan of logging is to 
be included, the topography must be shown in detail. For 
purposes of ordinary forest organization it suffices to show all 
drainage, all roads and trails, all houses, barns, and other "cul- 
ture," and the topography in contours of ioo-foot interval 
sketched in from aneroid barometer traverses. In level country 
contours serve no useful purpose. In the matter of topography 
the object is to get a good working medium for orientation and 
for the subsequent division of the area. 

The scale of the map must depend on the size of the area, 
the wealth of detail, and the intensity of the proposed manage- 
ment. Ordinarily a scale of i or 2 inches to the mile for the 
general map is quite sufficient. Where the forest is very large 
it is well to have a small scale location map, and then larger scale 
maps showing the various parts of the forest in greater detail. 



10 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

No survey of the area — and no forest map — is complete 
which does not include a delineation of the forest types. This is 
usually done in conjunction with the estimating, but its im- 
portance must be emphasized here. Simplicity in type dis- 
tinctions is essential for clearness. Only those type differences 
should be recognized which are sufficiently striking as to be 
recognized instantly by every trained eye. Ordinarily, per- 
manent types alone should be regarded, but often transitory 
types — e.g., aspen on old burns — must be recognized, since they 
demand a different treatment. Minor differences should never, 
for the purposes of a Working Plan, be made the basis of type 
distinction. 

The mapping of all cut-over or burned areas, of swamps, 
barrens, etc., is a part of every forest survey. 

Timber Estimates 

Requisites. — Without encroaching on the subject of forest 
mensuration, the requisites of the timber estimates for purposes 
of the Working Plan are: 

i. Amount and species of timber. 

2. Class of timber (saw timber, cordwood, etc.). 

3. Condition of timber (soundness). 

4. Approximate age of timber. 

For purposes of combining the survey with the" timber esti- 
mate, the strip method of estimating is undoubtedly the best. 
From a definite base line — such as a section boundary or, if in 
unsurveyed or very rough country, a base line previously run 
out — the strips are run out at right angles, at definite in- 
tervals. 

Base Lines. — The section line serves as an excellent base, 
especially in fairly level country. Rough topography or the lack 
of suitable survey lines as a base make it necessary to establish 
base lines in advance of the actual estimating. They should be 
located in valley bottoms, along roads, or elsewhere so that they 
can be easily re- traced; at the same time they give a preliminary 



PLATE II. 




A Reconnaissance Survey Party, Florida. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 11 

topographic control. The distances must of course be measured 
accurately either by chain or tape or by stadias. The use of 
stadia — involving a mountain transit or a telescopic alidade — 
is advisable only in fairly open country or for the primary base 
lines. The chain or tape is much handier in timbered country; 
pacing is not accurate enough for this purpose. 

Beginning at some known point, or at least tied thereto by 
definite triangulation, the base line system is developed over the 
whole forest like the stem and branches of a tree. The number 
of base lines must depend on the intensity of the work ; better 
fewer and accurate than many and slipshod. 

A traverse board and open sight alidade are excellent for 
base-line work unless the timber is too dense ; then chaining 
alone is possible, and the notes must be plotted not only upon 
return to camp, but immediately, in the rough, so as to determine 
where the equidistant survey stations are to be established. 
For the base line traverse will necessarily be a zig-zag and the 
survey stations must be exactly equidistant. They are usually 
marked with a stake and a pile of stones or a blaze, scribed or 
blue-penciled with the number and the elevation of the station. 
For purposes of identification it is well to place the station close 
to some road, trail, stream, or other topographic feature. The 
elevation is determined by aneroid barometer readings carried 
from some point of known elevation. Where transit or telescopic 
alidade are used it can also be determined by the vertical angles. 
The crossings of all roads and trails, of creeks, etc., are noted, 
either directly plotted on the traverse table or else entered in 
the note-book; the elevation at these crossings is also noted. 

If the forest is so large that the estimating will require several 
seasons, only so much of the base-line work need be completed 
in advance as will be used in that season. However, base-line 
work can often be done to advantage several months before the 
detailed estimates are begun. 

Wherever possible, the Forest Organizer should himself be 
in charge of the base-line work. Three men constitute the 
ordinary base-line crew; two will suffice at a pinch, though it is 



12 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

better to have two to chain and one for the traverse board or 
to enter notes, take aneroid readings, etc. 

The Strips. — The estimate strips should always run across 
the topography; only in that way will average conditions be 
secured. The size of the crew depends on the method of esti- 
mating employed. The ordinary valuation survey crew consists 
of two caliper men, and a head and a rear chainman. The former 
runs the compass, the last named takes notes on topography 
and elevation and enters the diameters breast high as called out 
by the caliper men. Each strip is usually one chain wide. 

Where the strip is not chained, the crew can be reduced to 
three, or even two, the compassman to pace and keep notes, 
two (or one) to caliper. 

Where trained men are used, calipering is seldom necessary; 
here two men — one to pace and keep notes, one to estimate 
diameters — suffice. 

In open timber the strips can be widened to one chain on 
each side of the line. 

One man can run a strip, but he can scarcely manage com- 
pass, aneroid, note-book, and estimate all at the same time. 
Either he must make an ocular estimate of the whole stand or 
else confine himself to quarter-acre (or similar sized) sample 
areas at definite intervals. Only in cases of need is this sample- 
area method advised; it is usually better economy to use a 
two or more man crew. The work goes better, the men check 
each other's judgment and, finally, in case of accident, the single 
man is not left helpless. 

The strips must gridiron the forest. The interval between 
the grids depends on the purpose of the work. For a reliable esti- 
mate 5 to 10 per cent of the area should be covered. This means : 

For 5 per cent of area: chain wide strips 20 chains apart. 
" 5 " " " strips two chains wide, 40 chains 

apart. 
" 5 " " " Four >^-acre sample areas, 2*4 

chains apart on strips 20 chains 
apart 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



13 



For 10 per cent of area chain wide strips 10 chains apart. 
" 10 " " strips two chains wide 20 chains 

apart. 
" 10 " " Four X _acre sample areas, 2^ 

chains apart on strips 10 chains 
apart. 
A very practical way of recording the estimates is by 3 -inch 
diameter classes, beginning with the smallest merchantable 
diameter, supposing this to be 11 inches, as follows: 



D. B. H. 


SPECIES 


inches 


Pine 


Spruce 


Fir Etc. 


12 

15 










18 




21 




24, etc 




Poles 




Saplings 




Seedlings 









Seedlings are all trees under 5 feet in height; these are usually 
counted on a quarter-acre circle at the end of every ten chains 
or so, to supplement the notes on reproduction (see below). 

Saplings are from 5 feet in height to, say, 6 inches diameter 
breast high. 

Poles are over, say, 6 inches diameter breast high up to the 
minimum merchantable diameter. Poles and saplings are 
counted and tallied just like the larger timber. 

While the strip estimates, in combination with volume tables, 
usually give more accurate results than an ocular estimate, the 
greater expense of the former and the longer time required to 
cover a given area often decide in favor of the latter, expecially 
where a rough estimate suffices and data on diameter classes 
are not requisite. 

Various methods of ocular estimating have been devised ; for 
purposes of Forest Organization the Method of Reconnaissance 



14 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

Estimating practised by the Federal Forest Service since 1907 
is probably the best.* 

Reconnaissance Estimates. — This method is briefly as 
follows: Beginning at a known point, the estimator paces 10 
chains, compass in hand, in a straight N., S., E., or W. line. 
This places him in the centre of a 40-acre square. For example, 
if the initial point were 10 chains west of the southeast corner 
of Section 6, the estimator would pace 10 chains due north and 
thereby be in the exact centre of the S.E. X °f the S.E. % of 
Section 6. 

Here the estimator glances carefully around and "sizes up" 
the timber to the best of his ability. However, he makes no 
permanent entry in his note-book until, having gone a further 10 
chains in the same direction, the boundary of the 40-acre square 
is reached. The last 10 chains t may have revealed conditions 
necessitating a change in the original estimate; the estimator 
now sets down the estimate by species for the entire forty directly 
in M. feet board measure or cords or other unit. A diagrammatic 
blank is provided for the purpose. He also notes the general age 
of the timber and designates it for the forty by the letters: 

O for overmature — older than the rotation age. 

M for mature — more than half the rotation age. 

Y for young — less than half the rotation age. 

The intermediate grades O-M and Y-M are also used. 

This classification and the estimates are for timber above the 
minimum merchantable diameter; below this diameter, the 
"young growth" or "reproduction" is designated for the forty 
by the letters: 

G for good — enough to fully restock the area. 

F for fair — enough to half restock the area. 

P for poor — practically nothing wherewith to restock the 
area. 
The intermediate grades G-F and P-F are also used. 

* For detailed description see "Proceedings Society of American Forest- 
ers," Vol. IV., No. 1. Reprinted Yale Publishing Association, 1909. See also, 
for practical workings, cost, etc., "F. Q.," Vol. VIII. , No. 4, pp. 415 to 418. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 15 

This process repeats itself for each forty. For purposes of 
checking, the estimator ties his line to any known points. E.g., 
in the above example, after having run 40 chains or to the middle 
of the Section, the estimator ties to the E. }i corner thereof; 
again, after having run 80 chains or to the northern section line, 
the estimator ties to the N.E. section corner. Similarly base- 
line corners are tied to, and the aneroid elevations checked. 

In tying to surveyed section corners Mr. "J. H.' Allison of the 
Forest Service has, from many years of field experience, evolved 
an excellent shortcut. E.g., in the example cited above, the 
estimator starts directly from the S.E. section corner and runs 
14. 1 chains N. 45 W., which places him in the centre of the 
S.E. J4 °f tne S.E. %. Thence he runs due north 10 chains 
at a time. The twentieth chain places him in the centre of the 
N.E. % of the S.E. %. Thence he runs 14. 1 chains N. 45 E. 
to the E.X corner and ties thereto. Thence again 14. 1 chains 
N. 45 W. to the centre of the S.E. % of the N.E. X, thence 10 
and again 10 chains due north to the centre of the N.E. yi of the 
N.E. yi, thence 14. 1 chains N. 45 E. to the N.E. section corner. 
To go back southward through the section — from the N.E. 
section corner the estimator runs 20 chains due W., thence S. 
45 W. 14.1 chains to the centre of the N.W. >^of the N.E. }{, 
thence due south, reversing the process previously described 
(except that there is no centre corner to tie to), and so reach- 
ing after 60 chains due south, the centre of the S.W. yi of the 
S.E. %, and thence 14. 1 chains S. 45 W. to the south ^ corner 
of the section. 

Obviously, the distance between the strips must be varied 
according to the character of the timber traversed. Very open 
stands may permit strips 40 instead of 20 chains apart and 
estimates by quarter sections; in dense stands the distance may 
have to be shortened to 10 chains and the estimate made by 
10-acre units. The method remains the same. The criterion 
is the area which can be looked over by the estimator without 
slighting any important part. 

In this method the estimator should be an experienced judge 



16 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

of timber; in any case he should check his judgment by frequent 
sample areas whose contents have been accurately determined 
by calipering each tree; thorough drills, monthly, on sample 
"forties" will serve to test and bring up to standard the judg- 
ment of each man in an estimating crew. 

Topographic Notes. — Besides the timber estimating, it is 
a valuable feature of all strip systems that the opportunity is 
offered to get excellent data on topographic features. 

The estimator or tally man carries an aneroid barometer 
and notes the elevation at each stream, divide, or similar feature ; 
also at each corner to which he ties. Streams, ridges, roads, 
trails, etc., are sketched by him in a suitable note-book so as 
to show the exact point at which these features were crossed 
and their trend for a short distance to either side of the survey 
line. The same method applies to burned and cut-over areas. 
The boundaries of these and of the forest types should be noted 
where they are crossed and their trend for a short distance to 
either side of the survey line. These data should be sketched 
in on blanks or note-books provided for the purpose. 

Time of Survey and Estimate. — The "field season" — i.e., 
that season when field work can be accomplished with the 
minimum of climatic difficulties — is usually the best for the work 
of estimating and mapping. In mountainous countries and in 
northern latitudes, this means the summer months; in southern 
latitudes winter is often preferable because of the excessive 
summer heat. Even in mountain regions the winter season may 
sometimes be chosen because the forest personnel is usually less 
heavily burdened with work in winter than in summer. That 
winter work is entirely feasible, if snowshoes or skis are used, 
is demonstrated by the winter reconnaissance in certain mountain 
forests of California.* One advantage of winter work is the 
ease with which the compassman's tracks can be followed by 
the cruisers and used by them as a check on the width of the 
estimating strips. 

* See "Winter Reconnaissance in Californian Mountains," R. F. Ham- 
matt, "F. Q.," Vol. IX., No. 4, pp. 557-562 



PLATE III. 




A Reconnaissance Survey Camp, Florida. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORDING PLANS 17 

Use of Yield Tables. — The estimating of timber by means 
of yield tables unfortunately finds little or no application in 
America because of the lack of suitable tables. Yield tables 
are constructed for even-aged fully stocked stands of a single 
species for various site qualities. The age is usually given in 
five- or ten-year intervals. European yield tables are separated 
for final and intermediate yield (thinnings) and total. Normal 
yield tables preponderate, but real (empirical) yield tables are 
used as makeshifts. The methods of making yield tables is the 
province of Forest Mensuration, but for purposes of Forest 
Organization the data should comprise at least: Age, Yield, 
Current and Mean Annual Increment for each Site Quality 
(I to V, see "Forest Description," below). 

The use of Yield Tables requires the determination in the 
field of the following data (presupposing nearly even-aged 
stands): Age, Site Quality, Density of Stocking. The corre- 
sponding value for the age and site quality is read directly from 
the yield table and this multiplied by the factor of density 
(i.o to o.o) — see "Forest Description," below. Where there are 
several species in the stand, the percentage of each is determined 
and the corresponding value in the various yield tables mul- 
tiplied thereby; these values are then added and their sum mul- 
tiplied by the factor of density (i.o to o.o). 

Cost. — The cost of estimating by the strip methods averages 
between the following figures: 

Summer work 1.5 to 6 cents per acre 

Winter work 3.0 to 6 cents per acre 

Forest Description 

It is of the utmost importance for the W T orking Plan that 
the silvical data secured in gridironing a forest be made a matter 
of record. In order that the observer may put down his observa- 
tions while they are fresh in his mind it is well to provide a note- 
book or blanks with appropriate headings, such as: 

Character of Forest. — Even-aged, all-aged, even-aged in 

2 



18 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

groups, etc., average age. Component species in percentages 
of chief timber trees. 

Average Site Quality. — (I to V of which I is the best, V the 
poorest; intermediate grades are expressed thus: I/II, IV/V, 
etc. The usual criterion for determining site quality is the 
height growth; tables of height growth serve as a useful guide 
in this respect. Until the eye is trained, some hypsometer 
measurements are advisable. Comparative volume growth is 
also a useful guide to Site Quality. 

Density of Stocking. — (i.o to o.o in decimals, of which i.o 
is the fully stocked stand, o.o is the vacant or barren area.) The 
density is usually determined by the crown cover, although this 
varies with the species. For example, a fully-stocked stand of 
Western yellow pine has an altogether different crown density 
from the fully stocked stand of spruce. The best judgment 
of the observer is required in this and every other phase of forest 
description, if the data are to be of real value and use and not 
merely "guesswork." 

Both Site Quality and Density of Stocking have their explana- 
tion in natural causes which the observer should try to determine 
and to place under one or several of the following headings: 

Cuttings. — Apparent date, purpose, silvicultural method used, 
if any, present condition with especial regard to whether the 
cutting area is restocking satisfactorily. 

Burns. — Apparent date, cause, present condition with 
especial regard to whether the cutting area is restocking satis- 
factorily. 

Rock. — The determining characteristics, such as "granite," 
"shale," etc. 

Soil. — The simple name — "sandy loam," "clay," etc. 

Ground Cover. — Weeds, grass sods, etc. Whether sufficient 
to prevent natural reproduction. 

Undergrowth. — Character of undergrowth, brush, etc. Wheth- 
er sufficient to prevent natural regeneration. 

•Young Growth. — Seedlings, saplings, poles, approximate 
proportion of each, whether they occur scattered uniformly 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 19 

over area, or patchy and groupwise. Is the young growth now 
present sufficient to restock the area. ''This does not mean," 
as Mr. Zon points out,* "a few seedlings or even a few hundred 
seedlings to the acre, but a reproduction which is sufficient to 
produce a hundred years hence a merchantable stand of timber. 
Allowing for the natural thinning out of the young growth, there 
must be at least between fifteen hundred and two thousand 
seedlings to the acre in order to produce a merchantable stand 
at the time of maturity. A few hundred seedlings per acre may 
be capable of growing up and producing a large amount of seed, 
but cannot produce a merchantable stand of timber." 

Size and Quality of Timber. — The average diameter breast- 
high of all timber of merchantable size. If saw timber, the 
number of sawlogs (16 feet long) per tree and per M. feet board 
measure. The character, i.e., if unusually clear boled, or limby, 
etc. Approximate per cent of clear lumber. 

Condition of Timber. — Soundness, rot or insect attack, etc. 

These subjects need not be treated exhaustively; the forest 
description must, above all, be practical and brief. 

The unit of area in forest description depends, of course, 
on the degree of intensity possible in the Working Plan. The 
ideal unit of description is the Stand. The stand is that portion 
of the forest which is so essentially different in forest type, in 
method of management, in component species, in age, in density 
of stocking, or in site, that it is clearly distinct from the sur- 
rounding forest. The stand as a unit of forest description is 
ideal, since it is at the same time the true unit of Forest Manage- 
ment and Forest Organization (see "Division of Area" below). 
But the necessity of pushing the reconnaissance work and the 
size of the Working Plan area often makes it more feasible to 
confine the description to the survey unit — such as the section — 
or to an entire watershed (in unsurveyed and very mountainous 
country), leaving it to the Forest Organizer to combine the 
various descriptions and smooth out their differences and dis- 

* "Results of Cuttings on Minnesota National Forest," R. Zon, "Pro- 
ceedings of the Society of American Foresters," Vol. VII., No. I, p. 103. 



20 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

crepancies into a General Forest Description for the Working 
Plan (see Chap. III). At the same time the Forest Organizer 
is helpless if these Specific Forest Descriptions are inadequate or 
inaccurate. Nor need the description contain many words; 
for mere stereotyped repetition is both tiresome and futile. 

Division of Area 

The Division of Area for purposes of Forest Organization 
is in Europe considered the prerequisite of any Working Plan. 
For the extensive conditions prevailing in many parts of America 
the elaborate divisions of area used in Europe can well be waived. 
Indeed it is conceivable that a useful Working Plan could be 
constructed without any systematic division of the area. The 
need for these divisions grows with the refinements in manage- 
ment, and while it would be mere play in most American forests 
to mark each compartment and subcompartment in the map 
or on the ground, a skeleton outline of the salient divisions will 
often serve to facilitate and to systematize the working of a 
forest. Unnecessary divisions must be avoided. 

For these divisions topographic features, roads, trails, etc., 
should be made the boundaries ; even in flat country the hewing 
through of compartment lines is justified only under most 
intensive conditions. 

The customary subdivisions of a forest are: 

The working figure (syn. working block, working circle, 

Betriebsklasse). 
The block. 
The compartment. 
The subcompartment or stand. 

The Working Figure is that unit which is to be managed 
with the idea of a sustained yield. It may be only a part of a 
single administrative unit (e.g., National Forest), or it may 
comprise several such units. This is discussed in detail in the 
next section, "Determination of Method of Treatment." 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 21 

The Block is a convenient subdivision of the Working Figure, 
made to assist in the regulation of the yield. The Block com- 
prises a logging unit or group of logging units. Since the division 
of a Block is entirely topographic, a suitable local name can 
generally be taken from some salient topographic or cultural 
feature contained therein. 

The Compartment is a convenient subdivision of the Block, 
wherever conditions are sufficiently intensive to warrant it. It 
is created for purposes of easier orientation in the woods and for 
facilitating and systematizing the keeping of detailed forest 
records. Where the boundaries of compartments are hewn out 
or made into roads, these serve the additional purposes of fire 
lines, logging roads, points of attack in cutting series, and as 
convenient units where game is beaten from cover.* 

The "ultima ratio" of division of area is the Stand or Sub- 
compartment. The distinction is a silvicultural one, i.e., the Stand 
is that part of the area which through reasons of difference in 
forest type, in component species, in age, in density of stocking, 
and in site clearly demands a different method of treatment. 
It is really, therefore, an independent unit of cutting. It may 
be large or it may be small; but it must be of sufficient size 
to warrant the division, and of the right shape — i.e., a long, 
narrow strip might have sufficient area, but would nevertheless be 
unsuitable. Minor differences should be disregarded in creating 
subcompartments— * ' de minimis non curat lex ! " Even under the 
most intensive European conditions the average minimum size 
of a Subcompartment is i>< to 2}4 acres. The size of the Sub- 
compartment is in direct ratio to that of the forest. With 
decreasing size of the latter one would finally reach the 
single tree — as is actually the case in the small wood lot managed 
by the Selection (or Single Tree) System. Conversely, as the 
forest increases in size and the conditions become more extensive, 
the subcompartment also increases in area until, for forests of 

* Hence in the plains, e.g., in the Prussian pineries, the Compartment is 
called a " Jagen"— i.e., a "Hunting." The average size in Prussia is 25 hec- 
tares =61^ acres. 



22 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

100,000 to 1,000,000 acres, the minimum size of the subcom- 
partment would be about 40 to 160 acres. 

The degree of difference between two adjacent forest areas 
necessary to warrant their division into separate stands must 
be gauged along the following lines: 

Forest Type. — Differences in forest type always determine 
differences in stands. Permanent forest types alone are to be 
regarded in this respect. 

Component Species. — Minor differences in percentage of 
mixture or presence of subsidiary species should be disregarded. 
Only where the component species necessitate a different silvi- 
cultural method of management or a different rotation, or where 
there is a marked difference in their market value, should 
separate stands be recognized. These differences are seldom 
regarded in young growth — i.e., under one-quarter of the rotation; 
a mere note in the stand table suffices to indicate the difference 
and whether the component species are intermingled singly or 
groupwise. 

Age is determinative of stand differences especially where 
the regulation is to be by age classes (Chap. II), and where the 
forest is essentially even-aged. In the younger growth, i.e., 
under one-half of the rotation age, differences of 20-35 years 
can be disregarded; a mere note in the stand table suffices to 
indicate the difference. Stands over half the rotation age demand 
a closer classification; not over 20 years difference for the third 
quarter of the rotation, not over 10 years for the last quarter. 
Over-mature stands, i.e., over 10 years more than the rotation age, 
should be segregated as they are the especial objects of an early 
cutting. 

In this as in all cases of stand differentiation, the degree of 
refinement varies with the size of the forest and the intensity 
of the management. 

Density of Stocking and Site Quality determine stand differ- 
ences where they are sufficiently striking to necessitate a dif- 
ferent method of management (e.g., protection forest on upper 
slopes). 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 23 

In general it is this Necessity for a Different Method of Manage- 
ment which is determinative of stand distinction. Where no 
striking differences in type, species, age, density, or site occur 
the same method of management applies, and there is no occasion 
to differentiate into separate stands. Where the methods of 
management are different the stands are, ipso facto, different. 
Hence it is impossible within the same subcompartment to have 
High Forest, Coppice with Standards, and Straight Coppice. 
Furthermore, even-aged and uneven-aged areas of High Forest 
are always separated into separate stands. 

Designation of Divisions. — Working figures and blocks are 
given names; compartments are numbered; subcompartments 
(stands) are lettered. E.g., a paper-birch thicket in midst of 
spruce compartments on the lower slopes of Mount Tecumseh 
block in the Waterville, N. H., basin, would be designated as 
29a, Tecumseh Block, Waterville Figure. 

Boundaries of Divisions. — Before designating the boundaries 
of any working-plan divisions, either in the field or on the map, 
the Forest Organizer, in consultation with the owner and the 
administrator of the forest, or both, should decide just what 
divisions are to be made and on what basis. The determination 
of working figures is a sine qua non, but whether blocks, com- 
partments, and subcompartments are also to be segregated 
depends entirely on the specific needs of the forest. Large 
forests should almost always be divided into blocks. The 
further subdivision into compartments and subcompartments 
is necessary only where intensive working plans are practicable. 

Having decided just how far to go in the matter of divisions, 
the Forest Organizer keeps this in mind during his preliminary 
reconnaissance and during the entire progress of the field work. 
The detail of forest description and the unit described depend 
on the extent of subdivisions. That is, if blocks are the minimum 
divisions possible, the organizer needs only the briefest descrip- 
tions by sections or other survey unit and a mere detailed general 
description by watersheds or other appropriate logging units, 
for these are the future blocks. If, on the other hand, the 



21 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

refinements of compartments and subcompartments are possible 
the unit of description must be the stand, and the forest descrip- 
tion of each stand must be sufficiently detailed so that the Forest 
Organizer can determine therefrom whether to make it a sub- 
compartment, and its function in regulating the yield. 

Obviously, therefore, the provisional boundaries of the 
minimum unit of division decided upon must be noted in the 
progress of the survey and estimate and noted on the map. 

As the work of gathering the data progresses, the Forest 
Organizer keeps always in mind the possible division of the 
forest and, map in hand, goes through the area to determine 
its most advantageous arrangement. His task will be the easier 
if the forest description data are well and carefully gathered. 

Stands (subcompartments) are combined into compart- 
ments. The boundaries of the former are silvical (see above), 
of the latter, topographic and natural just as far as possible. 
Oftentimes the compartment and the stand coincide (which is 
especially convenient), or a stand stretches partly or wholly 
over several compartments. Streams, ditches, ridges, landslides, 
rock barrens, roads, trails, alienated areas, all form natural 
boundaries for compartments. Only where these natural boun- 
daries are lacking, or insufficient, is the cutting through of 
artificial lines permissible. 

The compartment varies in size from 50 to 250 acres; it is, 
as far as possible, rectangular or at least trapezoidal in shape, the 
boundary lines running with or at right angles to the prevailing 
local storm direction. Where artificial lines are cut through, 
those running with the prevailing storm direction are called 
"Haupt-Gestell" (Main Frame) or "Wirtschafts streifen" 
(Management Stripe), those running at right angles thereto, 
"Neben-Gestell" (Accessory Frame) or "Schneussen" or 
"Schneisen" (Glades [sic!]).* The former average 15 to 30 feet 
in width, the latter 6^2 feet to 15 feet; in this way they serve 
as a network of logging roads and fire lines. The "Schneisen" 

* In Prussia the " Hauptgestelle " are 700 to 800 yards apart; the " Neben- 
gestelle" are 350 to 400 yards apart. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 25 

serve also to strengthen the stand against windfall; for along 
them develops the "Waldmantel'' or " Windmantel" — i.e., the 
crowns of the trees on the border form an impenetrable mantle 
and protect the interior of the stand from windfall. This is 
especially important in spruce and similar shallow-rooted species. 
As the lower branches show signs of dying off, the strip is widened 
so as to let in the necessary additional light and keep the forest 
mantle intact, until it reaches a maximum width of 30 or 40 feet. 
These "Schneisen" are then made the points of attack for the 
cutting series, since the stand to leeward of them has through 
its forest mantle ample protection against the storms (Chapter 
II, Section 2). 

But, ordinarily, artificial division lines are not necessary. 
As main lines can be chosen the crests of ridges, the valleys and 
creeks; as secondary lines the spurs and hogbacks and smaller 
tributary creeks. 

Block divisions are always natural and are chosen on a large 
scale — watersheds, drainage basins, are suitable units. The 
single block may contain many thousand acres; its shape is 
immaterial; the governing considerations are logging and mar- 
ket conditions. The block is essentially a logging unit. Its 
segregation requires a complete knowledge of such matters as 
present market conditions, lines of transportation, outlets for 
the timber, and the probable changes and developments in all 
three. 

How far, if at all, the blocks should coincide with the admin- 
istrative divisions such as ranger districts, must depend on local 
conditions. It is often convenient to have block and ranger 
district coincide, and in level country, such as the Prussian 
pineries, this is entirely feasible. But the purposes of admin- 
istrative division are so different from those of the Working Plan 
that the coincidence should never be secured at a sacrifice of 
either Forest Administration or Forest Organization. 

The boundaries of blocks and stands (subcompartments) 
need not be marked on the ground. Compartments must be 
designated, either by numbered stakes or stones or both, or by 



26 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

stencilling the number of the compartment in white paint on 
the bark of a tree nearest to the corner thereof. Where the lines 
are not actually cut through, their intersections with roads, 
trails, streams, etc., should be similarly designated. Where 
road or trail or stream itself serves as the boundary, this is not 
necessary, but merely corner monuments or occasional guide- 
monuments are placed. 

On the map the boundary of the Working Figure is marked 
by heavy dot and dash — . — . — . — ; the blocks by dashes 

; the compartments by a dotted line 

; and the subcompartment or 

stand by a thin, unbroken line . 

Maps and Tables 

The various data collected in the field should, as far as 
possible, be entered on maps and summarized in tables. In this 
way they are made available at a glance. 

Maps, or, at least, some map of the forest, however crude, 
are indispensable in Forest Organization. The forest map 
should contain: 

(a) Essential topographic features; contours are seldom 
necessary in level country; hachures are not ordinarily advisable. 

(b) Roads and trails, railroads, houses, barns, and other 
"culture." 

(c) Boundary (exterior) of the forest; also all other interior 
holdings by other owners. 

(d) The forest types; also all burns and cut-over areas; 
all barrens and all land under cultivation or pasturage (non- 
forest land) within the exterior boundaries. 

A, b, c, and d may form one base map, or they may be made 
into separate maps as the wealth of detail necessitates or con- 
venience dictates. Where the area is too large to be shown com- 
pletely on one map of ordinary scale (}4 or i inch to the mile), 
a small scale location map can be made and as many large scale 
detail maps as are desired. In surveyed country a separate map 




SKETCH MAP 

OF PART OF A BLOCK 

SHOWING THE ARRANGEMENT OF 

COMPARTMENTS, SUBCOMPARTMENTS, 

AGE CLASSES AND CUTTING SERIES. 



LEGEND 
= BLOCK BOUNDARY 
5 = COMPARTMENT NUMBER 

— = COMPARTMENT BOUNDARY 

a = SUBCOMPARTMENT LETTER 

=SUBCOMPARTMENT BOUNDARY 

*" =PROGRESS OF CUTTING SERIES 

35 =AGE OF STAND 
AGE CLASSES 




41-60 

III 



61"8( 
IV 



Fig. 1. 



28 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

of each township, compiled from section sketches, is advis- 
able. 

Armed with this base map the Forest Organizer sketches in 
from survey notes, detail sketches, and forest description the fol- 
lowing additional points : 

(e) Provisional division of area into 
Blocks, 

Compartments, 
Subcompartments or Stands, 
all depending on the divisions previously decided upon. The 
stands are always irregular in shape and must be combined 
into compartments of suitable size and shape. Where the forest 
is approximately even-aged and the method of regulation is 
to consider age classes, these should be entered on the map by 
writing the age class of the subcompartment in Roman numerals 
(see Section i), and coloring or shading it accordingly. Barrens 
and treeless land are left blank. The blocks are also outlined 
provisionally. Often the Organizer must go over the area, map 
in hand, in order to settle some uncertainty on the ground. 
The boundaries had best be sketched only in pencil. If the 
original maps are made on tracing linen or on thin bond paper, 
blue-prints, or, still better, Van Dyke copies can be used for this 
provisional division of the area. 

This provisional map quite suffices until the final working- 
plan document is prepared, when the maps may be elaborated 
as much as is desired. E.g., the age classes can be shaded or 
colored, the types colored or symbolized, etc. (see Chapter III). 

The prevailing local storm direction is entered (where it is 
not known already it must be determined; in a mountainous 
region the storms often follow the direction of the main drainage) 
by means of long dotted arrows (see Fig. i). 

The next step is to obtain the areas of the various divisions, 
types, alienations, etc. This is most easily done by means of a 
planimeter. One decimal place usually suffices. The larger 
areas are always measured first — e.g., the blocks before the com- 
partments—the sum of the smaller divisions, e.g., of compart- 



GENERAL STAND TABLE WO 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


DIVISION 


AREA 




Compt. 
(No.) 


Sub- 

compt. 

(ltr.) 


Total 
Area 


Even Aged 


All Aged 


Cut Over 


Burnt I 




Regulated 


Unregulated 


Block 
(name) 


Acres 


Area 


Average 
and Age 
Limits 


Area 


m 

Age 
Limits 


Area 


* 

Silvi- 

cult. 
Method 

Date 
and % 

Left 


Area 


Date 

and 

% 

Left 


Area 


Date 
and 1 

% * 
Left 


Tecumseh 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 

6 

7 
8 

9 

IO 


a 
b 


IO4.27 
96. 

93-73 
106. 
99.20 

103. 

97- 

99-50 

40. 
61. 

100.30 


IO4 

96 

106 

IOO 

IOO 

40 
6l 


20-40 
60-80 

I00-I20 
140-160 

j I-IO 

1 I4O-160 

I60-200 

(160-200) 


94 
90 

80 


I-150 
I-I50 

I-I50 


IOO 


Sh. '02 
40% 


3 

50 


1900 
clean 

1895 
10% 
Culls. 


50 


1906 
None 


Totals. . . . 






1 ,000. 


607 




264 




See Col. 5 


53 




50 


.. 



* The silvicultural methods J Sh 
may be designated by the 
symbols: 



C = Clear cutting. 

C str = Clear cutting in strips. 

C p = Clear cutting in patches ("Well" meth). 

C ss = Clear cutting with scattered seed trees. 

= Shelterwood cutting. 
5 = Selection cutting. 

Sh-S =Shelterwood selection cutting. 
Sh-G = " group 

Sh-Str = " strip 

Sh-B = " border " 



t M.= thousand feet, board measure. 



[NG FIGURE, AREA... 












. . .ACRES 








16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 j 26 


27 


28 


29 




STAND 


DESCRIPTION 


INCREMENT 


ductive 


Stand by Species 














Curr. Annual 








Pure, 
Mixed, 
Kind of 
Mix- 
ture 


Den- 
sity of 
Stock- 
ing 


Site 
Qual- 
ity 


Young 
Growth 

suffi- 
cient to 

Re- 
stock? 


Remarks 








Species 
Spruce 


Species 
Fir 


Miscellaneous 
Hardwoods 


% 








Rea- 














Vol. 


sons 


M. 
t 


Cds. 


M. 


Cds. 


M. 


Cds. 


















200 




25 








P. 


1.0 


I 


Yes 


Thrifty 


•5 


i M. 




4OO 




35 








P. 


•9 


I-II 


No 


" 


•7 


2.8 M. 




700 




30 








P. 


.8 


IV 


Yes 


" 


1. 


7M. 




9OO 




45 








P. 


.8 


II 


No 


" 


1. 


9M. 


Rock 


600 




300 








M. 

singly 


•7 


IV 


Yes 


it 


1. 


9M. 


•• 


I,IOO 




75 








P. 


.6 


III 


Half 


Mature 


•5 


5-5 M. 


Pasture 


60O 




300 








M. 
singly 


.8 


III-IV 


No 


Grnd. fire 


•7 


6.3 M. 




440 




60 








P. 


•3 


III 


Half 


Mature 


•5 


2.5 M. 












Birch 


80 


P. 


1.0 


II-III 


No 


Old burns 


1. 


8 cds. 


•• 


9OO 


•• 










P. 


•5 


II-III 


Yes 


Decadent; 
fire scars 


•3 


2.7 M. 








100 




Aspen 


20 


M. 
Grps. 


.1 


II 


No 


Bad shape 
old burn 


.2 


,2M. 




5.840 




970 






IOO 


















THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



29 



ments, should check with the area of the larger unit (block) 
containing them. Minor errors can be proportioned. Roads, 
streams, boundary lines which have been cut through, etc., are 
seldom calculated as separate areas unless they are excessively 
wide, e.g., more than 20 feet. 

Tables are now drawn up to contain these and other data 
which can be summarized. These may be: 

(a) Alienation tables (status). 

(b) Stand tables (volume by species, classes of timber, units 

of area, etc.). 

(c) Area tables (by types, by divisions of area). 

(d) Age-class table (comparison with the normal). 

Any or all of these tables may be constructed as the data warrant 
and as there is occasion for them. An alienation table is necessary 
only where there are many interior holdings, or where the status 
is complicated. Stand tables are practically a necessity. Area 
tables are also almost indispensable in a well-regulated working 
plan. An age-class table is necessary only where the distribu- 
tion of the age classes plays a part in the regulation of the yield 
(Chapter II). Tables (6) and (e),to gether with abbreviated notes 
on site, density, age, and salient silvical characteristics, can be 
combined into the following General Stand Table. 

The particular form which this table takes should be varied 
to meet the needs of the working plan in question. The purpose 
is to give the essential data for the regulation of the yield; these 
essential data vary with the method of regulation which is 
chosen (Chapter II). In the appendix example the table has 
been made as complete as is necessary even under intensive 
conditions. The hypothetical data would have required a 
correspondingly intensive estimate and forest description. The 
division is by stands. In compartments 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, and 10 
the stand and the compartment coincide; compartments 6 
and 8 are one stand; compartment 9 has two stands or sub- 
compartments. 

These data will be required for only those forests which 
permit of an intensive management. However, the same form 



30 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

of table, with minor modifications, applies to even the most 
extensive conditions. For example: 

If the estimate and description is by survey units, e.g., by 
sections, quarter-sections, or even forties (reconnaissance), the 
arrangement of the columns would be varied so that Col. 2 
would be township and section, Col. 3 the quarter-section or 
forty, Cols. 5, 7, 9, n, 13, and 15 would give the area, not in 
acres, but in per cent of total, Cols. 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16 would 
usually indicate the age only as Over-mature (0), Mature (if), 
or Young (F) (see Section 2, above). Cols. 23-29 would usually 
be recorded separately for each type. 

If the estimate and description are lumped for the entire area 
of one type within the same watershed, Col. 2 would be the 
name of the type, Col. 3 would be blank, Cols. 5 to 22 inclusive 
would be as in the paragraph above, Cols. 23 and 26 would be 
very general, Cols. 24 and 25 would fall away, but Cols. 28 and 29 
would be retained. 

From the above data, a rough age-class table can, and, for 
all methods of regulating yield by the distribution of the age 
classes (Chapter II), should be constructed. Assuming in the 
hypothetical data of the general stand table above that the 
rotation is 160 years, the form of age-class table would then be 
as follows: Age Class Table A. 

In the above example if only the symbols "0," "M," and 
"F" are used, the comparison would be: Age Class Table B. 

Were the intermediate steps O/M and Y/M used also to 
designate the approximate age of the stands, the table would 
read: Age Class Table C. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



31 



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32 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 





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* THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 33 

SECTION THREE 

DETERMINATION OF METHOD OF TREATMENT 

Governing Conditions 

The method of treatment of any given forest depends on 
the wishes and purposes of its owner. It is very necessary that 
these fundamentals be decided in consultation between the 
owner and administrator, and the Forest Organizer, for the 
working plan must be arranged accordingly. 

Three main issues must be decided before any complete 
working plan is possible: 

i. The unit of regulation. 

2. The silvicultural method of management. 

3. Object of management. 

A fourth, Rotation, is necessary to all but one method of regu- 
lating the yield (Chapter II). 

The Unit of Regulation 

The unit of regulation is that area which is to be managed 
for a sustained yield. It is usually a working figure (synonyms, 
working block, working circle, Betriebsklasse). The working 
figure may or may not coincide with the administrative unit, 
e.g., the single national forest. Where species, topography, and 
markets are similar, or even identical, the creation of separate 
working figures is unnecessary and undesirable. The blocks 
serve every purpose of subdivision. 

Again, there may be several working figures within the same 
administrative unit — e.g., high forest and coppice should never 
occur in the same working figure. 

The cases necessitating separate working figures are: 

High forest. 

Coppice with standards. 

3 



34 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

Coppice. 

Differences in ownership. 

Areas far apart or of very large size. 

In creating working figures, the doctrine of sustained yield 
must be treated broadly. A sustained yield presupposes three 
things : 

(i) A sustained market with attendant transportation facil- 
ities rendering every part of the forest accessible now or pro- 
gressively so in the near future. 

(2) An area ample, under the silvicultural methods chosen, 
to supply this sustained market. 

(3) Stable market prices for the lumber and other forest 
products. 

These three factors do not always coincide with the admin- 
istrative units. The boundary of the administrative unit is 
purely for convenience in the management of the forest; the 
boundary of the working figure is, as far as limitations of owner- 
ship permit, an economic one within which the marketing of 
timber is controlled by certain factors of consumption or dis- 
tribution. Economic reasons may warrant the over-cutting 
on one administrative unit and the under-cutting on another, 
but if a sustained yield from the entire market unit is main- 
tained it is of small moment if the stand on one or more of the 
administrative subdivisions is over-cut. 

This broad construction is of course adapted to the extensive 
conditions existing in most parts of America. In Europe, e.g., 
in Prussia, it has long been customary to require a sustained yield 
by administrative units — i.e., for each oberforsterei or super- 
visor's area — recently it has been extended in Prussia to cover 
each ranger's district! But in America the unit of regulation, 
the working figure, must be practical, must be the market unit, 
just as the subdivision, the block, must be the logging unit. 

Where administrative unit areas belonging to the same 
owner are far apart or exceedingly large, they are not included 
in the same working figures. E.g., it would be preposterous to 
make a single working plan for the two divisions of the Florida 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 35 

National Forest or for the whole complex of contiguous national 
forests in Washington and Oregon. 

But it is entirely correct and logical to combine, e.g., the 
contiguous and similar Coconino and Tusayan National Forests 
in northern Arizona. The administrative boundary separating 
these two national forests is a purely arbitrary one; they are 
essentially the same in character and composition, and are parts 
of the same market unit. 

The working figure is given some convenient local name 
which is simple and characteristic. It is conceivable that one 
working figure might be within another— e.g., a coppice of oak 
might be within a pine forest. If the coppice is of sufficient size 
to warrant the distinction, it should be made a separate working 
figure within the other, for it requires a different method of 
organization from that accorded high forest. A forest in process 
of conversion, e.g., from coppice to standards, is also considered 
a separate working figure, and requires a separate working plan. 
Forests or parts of forests managed chiefly for turpentine or 
other unique forest products require a separate working plan, 
and constitute distinct working figures. 

SlLVTCULTURAL METHOD OF MANAGEMENT 

Having decided upon the unit of regulation, the Organizer, 
in conference with owner and administrator, should decide, 
provisionally, upon the silvicultural method of management; 
for the method of regulating the yield varies with the silvi- 
cultural system. 

The first point to determine is whether the forest is to be 
managed as: 

High forest, 

Coppice with standards, 
or Coppice, 
or is to be converted from one of these forms to another. If 
high forest is chosen, the method of regeneration must be deter- 
mined provisionally as: 



36 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

I. Artificial (sowing or planting) = Clear Cutting. 
II. Natural. 

(A) Natural re-seeding from shelterwood. 

(B) Natural re-seeding from adjacent stands. 

In (A) the re-seeding is by means of seed trees left more or 
less equally distributed over the cutting area. Where these 
seed trees are of all ages, i.e., where all trees of seed-bearing age 
take part in regenerating the stand (as in virgin forest), the 
method is called that of Selection Cutting. Where the seed trees 
left are approximately even-aged and the merchantable timber 
is removed in successive cuttings at relatively short intervals, 
the method is that of Shelterwood Cutting. In the Selection 
Cutting, the period of regeneration stretches over the entire 
rotation, the resulting stand is all-aged; in the Shelterwood 
Cutting the period of regeneration is definite, theoretically not 
to exceed 10-15 years, the resulting stand is approximately 
even-aged. 

In practice the two methods (Selection and Shelterwood) 
are often combined for greater flexibility, and then the period 
of regeneration may be 30 to 50 years. This is called the Shelter- 
wood- Selection Cutting. 

Modifications of the Shelterwood system are the Shelterwood 
Group Cutting, the Shelterwood Strip Cutting, and the Shelterwood 
Border Cutting* 

In (B) the re-seeding is by seed from adjacent stands (often 
supplemented by isolated seed trees of windfirm species), which 
presupposes species with a light seed of great carrying power. 
The cutting is either Clear Cutting in Strips or Clear Cutting in 
Patches ("Well" method) or Clear Cutting with Scattered Seed 
Trees. 

The various systems grade into each other, and even the two 
extremes — Clear Cutting • and Selection Cutting — touch each 
other; for as the clear cut area grows smaller and smaller (Clear 
Cutting in Patches or "Well" method), the point is finally 

* See "Proceedings Society of American Foresters," Vol. VII., No. 2; 
"Border Cuttings: A Suggested Departure in American Silviculture." 



PLATE IV. 




Fig. 1. — A Compartment Regenerated by Shelterwood Cutting* 

Courtesy of Mr. Lincoln Crowell. 



Baden. 




Fig. 2. — A Compartment Regenerated by Border Cutting, Wurttemberg. 

Courtesy of Mr. Lincoln Crowell. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 37 

reached where the clear cut area is that occupied by a 
single tree — the Selection Cutting. Thus the snake bites its 
own tail! 

The determination of the silvicultural method to be prac- 
tised will require the best judgment and experience of the Forest 
Organizer. The regulation of the yield will vary accordingly. 
Large regular areas, clear cut or regenerated by shelterwood 
system, permit of a working plan by area — i.e., where the annual 
cut is determined by the area — whereas the small, irregular 
areas demand a working plan by volume and increment (see 
Chapter II) . Complete forest descriptions and frequent observa- 
tions within the forest will assist greatly in determining the 
best silvicultural system to pursue. 

Object of Management 

At the working-plan conference between owner, admin- 
istrator, and Organizer, the object for which the forest is to be 
managed must be decided, i.e., whether 

i. For maximum productivity in timber (forest rent theory), 

2. For maximum productivity in money (soil rent theory), 

3. For protection, 

4. For aesthetic purposes, or for the chase, 

5. For local needs, 

or how far each or all of these considerations is to govern. 

If the forest is to be a productive one, the next point to decide 
is the class of product desired : 

1. Sawtimber, 

2. Cord wood, 

3. Mining timber, 

4. Turpentine, etc. 

It must also be decided whether the yield is to be sustained, 
and, if so, whether periodic or annual, or the forest managed on a 
purely exploitation basis. 

The satisfactory solution of all these questions demands a 
thorough knowledge of forest policy on the part of the Organizer. 



38 the theory and practice oe working plans 

The Rotation 

In determining the rotation age, the considerations of greatest 
moment are the silvicultural methods chosen and the objects of 
management decided upon. The conception of a rotation is 
essential to a sustained yield. This rotation age may be only 
a tentative figure or it may be definitely determined; indeed, 
as shown in Chapter II, it is quite possible to regulate the yield 
without having determined the rotation, by increment and age- 
class distribution alone (Hufnagl's method), but the feeling 
of a rotation underlies in all cases. 

Various kinds of rotations are distinguished as follows: 

i. Physical, 

2. Greatest volume, 

3. Technical, 

4. Greatest income, 

5. Financial, 

6. Latent. 

Without trespassing too far on the domain of Forest Mensura- 
tion, it should be noted that: 

1. The Physical Rotation is either that which is best suited 
for the natural regeneration of a species on given site conditions, 
and for certain silvicultural systems; or that which coincides 
with the natural span of life for the stand. In practice the 
physical rotation is restricted to protection forests, luxury 
forests (for aesthetic and hunting purposes), and, occasionally, 
to coppice. 

2. The Rotation of Greatest Volume (syn. Silvicultural Rotation, 
Economic Rotation) coincides with the age of the maximum 
mean annual increment. This maximum corresponds to the 
point where the plotted curves of current annual increment 
and mean annual increment cross. 

3. The Technical Rotation is that at which the stand has 
produced the timber or other material best suited for certain 
purposes — e.g., the rotation for turpentine production is a tech- 
nical one. Its application is necessarily limited. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 39 

4. The Rotation of Greatest Income or that of highest forest rent 
is that age at which the stand yields the largest income cal- 
culated by the arithmetical mean. In contradistinction to (5) 
the financial or highest soil-rent rotation, the soil is not con- 
sidered as interest-bearing capital, but as a necessary presuppo- 
sition for any forest (Waldreinertrag). The income per cent is 
determined by the formula: 

Forest Income less Forest Expense Income 

Value of Forest Capital per cent. 

This is figured for various tentative rotations; that rotation 
which shows the highest income per cent is then finally adopted. 

5. The Financial Rotation is that of highest net income, or 
that of highest soil rent. Herein (in contradistinction to 4, the 
rotation of highest forest rent) the soil is considered as interest- 
bearing capital. The rate of interest must be determined accord- 
ing to local requirements, wishes of owner, etc. Then the index 
per cent, W, is determined by the formula 

W = (a + b or c) -^—^ 

where a = volume increment, b = quality increment, c = value 
increment or depreciation, A = the arithmetical mean of present 
and future yield, and S the soil capital with interest thereon.* 
That rotationage is then adopted where W is at a maximum. 

6. The Latent Rotation. For every distribution of the age 
classes there exists a certain rotation which is normal in so far 

that by its adoption the normal annual cut - (area ■£■ by rotation) 

can be utilized without disturbing the sustained character of 
the yield. This latent rotation is just double the average age 
of the working figure. For example, if the stand shows the 
following distribution of the age classes: 

* For further details see Schlich: "Manual of Forestry," Vol. III., 3rd 
edition, pp. 194-201. London: Bradbury, Agnew & Co., Ltd. Since this 
method of calculating the rotation is suitable only to very intensive con- 
ditions, it would serve no useful purpose to elaborate it at this point. 



40 



THE THEORY AND PEACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



Total Area 
acres 


I 
1-20 yrs. 


II 

21-40 yrs. 


III 
41-60 yrs. 


IV 
61-80 yrs. 


V 
81 and over 


Blanks 
(unst'k'd) 


2,160 


510 


496 


465 


443 


214 


32 



then the average age would be: 

32 X 0= o 
510X10= 5,100 
496X30 = 14,880 
465X50=23,250 
443X70=31,010 
214X90 = 19,260 



Total, 2,160 



93,500 



93,500-5-2,160 = 43 years = the average age 

The latent rotation then = 43X2 = 86, or practically 80 to 90 
years. This method fails in stands of the same age, or in entirely 
young or otherwise abnormal working figures. It also, of course, 
fails in selection forest, since this does not usually permit of the 
construction of an age-class table. 

The kind of rotation to adopt depends on matters of policy, 
to wit: 

Conditions of ownership, wishes and purpose of owner. 

The market and logging conditions. 

The site. 

The character of the stand. 

The State can afford a higher rotation than can the private 
owner; furthermore, it is the duty of the State to grow timber 
not only for profit, but to supply future demand, especially in 
sizes requiring long rotations. 

2. The market conditions influence the rotation, inasmuch 
as good markets and easy accessibility permit shorter rotations, 
whereas forests further from market and more difficult of access 
necessitate a longer rotation to make logging at all profitable. 
The decreasing area of virgin forest and the rapidly increasing 
population justify the consideration of future as well as present 
market conditions. Tt is reasonable to expect that the price of 
larger timber will increase proportionately more than that of 



1. 

2. 

3- 
4- 
1. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



41 



smaller sizes, and hence it may be good economy, in view of 
future market prices, to adopt a longer rotation and plan to grow- 
larger sizes of timber than present market prices would warrant. 

3. The more the site is adapted to a certain species, the longer 
can the rotation be. Conversely the more rapid growth on good 
sites will often tend to shorten the rotation. 

4. The character of the stands influences the rotation in 
respect to their quality and species. The better the quality of the 
stand, the longer can the rotation be; the less thrifty stands 
will often have to be cut before the regular rotation age. The 
species in mixed stands can usually be worked on the same rota- 
tion unless they mature at different ages or are markedly different 
in value, e.g., a mixed forest of Engelmann spruce and white fir 
(A. concolor) will often require a higher rotation for the spruce 
than for the fir; because the fir deteriorates at an earlier age 
and becomes almost valueless at a time when the spruce is just 
fully matured. 

Where the species are not intermingled but form pure groups 
or stands in the same working figure, the rotation is determined 
separately for each species comprising more than one-third of 
the total volume, and the results are then averaged. 

The customary rotations are, in Europe, for the chief species 
about as follows: 



Plains and 
Foothills 

( Pine 60- 80 years 

-j Spruce 60-80 

( Fir and beech 80-100 



Smaller 



Larger 
Tracts : 



C Pine 80-120 

■I Spruce 80-100 

(Fir and beech 80-120 



Intermediate 
Mountains 

70- 90 years 

60-100 

80-100 

80-120 

80-120 

100-120 



High 
Mountains 



80-100 years 
80-120 " 

80-120 years 
100-140 " 



CHAPTER II 

REGULATION OF YIELD 
DEFINITION 

Regulation of the yield is the determination, for some years 
in advance, of the allowed annual cut. This regulation is the very 
essence ol the working plan. 

The space of years for which the yield is regulated depends 
on the frequency of accurate revisions of the working plan. 
Ten years is the customary minimum period for which the yield 
is regulated; at the end of that time* the working plan is revised 
and the yield regulated for the following decade. Where period 
methods (see below) are used, the yield is regulated in detail 
for the first period — twenty years in advancef — or even for the 
first two periods — forty years in advancef — in detail for the 
first period of twenty years and roughly for the second period. 
Despite this regulation, so far in advance, exhaustive revisions 
are undertaken at the end of each decade. Frequent revisions 
are an absolute essential, and the regulation of yield for many 
years in advance, or even for the whole rotation, is little better 
than a useless play. 

The allowed annual cut is fixed: First, in respect to how 
much can be cut, i.e., the determination of yield; second, in re- 
spect to where it is to be cut, i.e., the distribution of yield. 
This chapter is accordingly divided into sections to correspond 
with these two divisions of the subject and a third to treat special 
cases of yield regulation. 



* In Saxony, the revision is undertaken every five years; the plan is for 
ten years. 

t Prussia. % Austria 

42 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 43 

SECTION ONE 

DETERMINATION OF YIELD 

The determination of the yield is either by area, by volume, 
or by both. In this determination the bases are the foundations 
of working plans already considered (Chapter I), namely: 

i. Increment. 

2. Growing stock and distribution of the age classes. 

3. Silvicultural method of management. 

4. Object of management. 

5. Rotation. 

Of these, increment is the most important, i.e., the increment 
as it actually is.* No sustained yield is possible which disregards 
the increment. 

According as the determination of yield is to be by area, 
by volume, or by both, the following methods have been evolved: 



I. 


A. By area. 






B. By volume. 




I. Based solely on growing stock. 


2. 


1. Von Mantel's method. 


3- 


2. Methode de Masson. 




II. Based solely on increment. 


4. 


1. By current annual increment (Hufnagl). 




III. Based on Growing Stock and Increment. 


5- 


1 . Austrian formula (Kameraltaxe) . 




6. 

7- 
8. 


2. Karl's method. 

3. Hundeshagen's method. 

4. Breymann's method. 


"Formula 
Methods." 


9- 


5. Heyer's method. 





* "The main task for the regulation of yield, here as well as abroad, is 
doubtless the determination of the annual or periodic increment — the incre- 
ment as it actually is. This is under all circumstances the most important 
basis and standard of comparison for the yield." — Prof. Dr. Martin, Tharandt, 
in private letter to the writer, January 21, 1912. 



44 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

IV. Based on Diameter Classes. 

10. i. French method (Methode de 1883). 

11. 2. Indian method. 

12. 3. Diameter class method (Hufnagl). 

C. By Area and Volume. 
I. For entire forest. 

13. 1. Russian method. 
II. Based on age classes. 

14. 1. Direct method (Hufnagl). 

15. 2. Hufnagl's method. 

16. 3. The stand method (Judeich's " Bestandswirt- 

schaft"). 
III. Based on periods ("Fachwerks Methoden"). 
1. Area-period method (" Flachenf achwerk ") . 

17. 2. Volume-period method (" Massenf achwerk ") . 

3. Area-and- volume period (" Kombiniertes Fach- 
werk"). 

These seventeen methods of determining the yield will be 
considered seriatim; for each will be given (a) the description 
of the method, (b) an example of its working, and (c) an estimate 
of its value and application, with especial regard to American 
conditions. The following symbols are used: V = volume, 
r = rotation, A = area, a = age, M. = thousand feet board measure, 
cds = cords, i = increment. 

1. BY AREA. 

(a) Description of Method. — The forest or main divisions 
thereof (working figures, blocks) is divided into a number of 
cutting areas — annual or periodic — corresponding to the rotation 
age. These annual or periodic cutting areas are marked on the 
ground; annually or periodically, a cutting area is logged. The 
size of the cutting areas is either exactly equal or else is equal 
to the. reduced area corresponding to the varying site qualities. 
In order to give more accurate expression to the distribution of 
the age classes, Hufnagl has suggested that each annual cutting 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 45 

i , • ,. , i i r average age a 

area be multiplied by the factor: : — 77— -, ——. — or — 

r J half the rotation r 

2 

thus securing the maximum sustained annual cutting area. 

(b) Example : I. Area not reduced. II. Area reduced. III. 

Hufnagl variation. 

I. A block contains 1,000 acres. It is to be managed on a 

A 
rotation of 160 years. The annual cutting area = — = 62.5 acres. 

If the cutting period is 20 years, then the periodic cutting area 
will be 62.5X20=1,250 acres. 

II. By reduced area: Each site quality produces for a fully 
stocked stand a varying volume at the rotation age. These vol- 
umes can either be secured empirically or by means of normal 
yield tables. E.g., for Scotch pine it has been determined that 
the maximum yield (Site I) for a 100-year rotation is 102 M. 
per acre, the minimum (Site V) 34 M. per acre. The interme- 
diate grades are : 

Site quality I ib2 M. per acre 

" II 85 M. " " 

" III 68 M. " " 

" IV 51 M. " " 

" V 34 M. " " 

Further intermediate grades would be, e.g.: 

Site quality I/II 93^ M. per acre 

etc. 

On the basis of site quality I the per cents of the other site 
qualities would be: 

Site quality 1 1 . 00 

' " II 83 I/H = 9i.5 

" III 66 

" IV 50 

" " V 33 

These are the factors of reduction to the common site quality (I) . 
If, in the above instance, the actual area of 1,000 acres was 



46 THE THEORY AND PEACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

composed of 200 acres of each site quality (I to V), then the 

reduced area would be: 

Site quality I, original 200 acres, reduced 200 acres. 

" II, " 200 " " 166 " 

" III, " 200 " " 132 " 

" IV, " 200 " " 100 " 

" V, " 200 " " 66 " 

Total, 1,000 acres, reduced 664 acres. 

The annual or the periodic cutting area is, therefore, varied 
according to the site quality or qualities in the area allotted. 

reduced area 664 

E.2., the annual cutting area = ——. = = 6.04 acres. 

6 ' fe rotation 100 

Similarly the periodic cutting area = 6.64X20 = 132.8 acres. If 
these 132.8 acres were all to be distributed among site quality III 
it would actually require: 

132.8X1.515 = 201 acres; 
for, from the above table of percentages, it requires: 

1 . 2 acres of site quality II to equal 1 acre of site quality I. 
1.515 " " " III " " 1 " " " I. 
2.0 " " " IV " " 1 " " " 1. 

3.03 " " " V " " 1 " " " I. 

III. Hufnagl variation: Hufnagl multiplies the annual 

. . average age 
cut by the — 

L. 

2 

Taking the example of age-class distribution and average age 
given under Latent Rotation (Chapter I, Section 3), this would 
be: 

Area =2,160 acres. 

Rotation = 80 years. 

Average age = 43 years. 

2160 43 
.'. the annual cutting area = —z. — X — =29 acres. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 47 

(c) Value and Application. — The area method is the oldest 
of yield regulation, dating from the sixteenth century. It enables 
the transition from mere exploitation to a conservative manage- 
ment. 

Its great advantage is simplicity. 

Its great disadvantages are: 

i. The rotation is assumed as a fixed value, whereas in 
reality it is a mere approximation and varies with the interior 
(management, accidents, etc.) and exterior (markets, desires of 
owner) changes to which every forest is subjected. 

2. The method is too straight-laced to permit the free play 
necessary for the best silviculture, e.g., natural regeneration. 

It is, therefore, restricted in application to forests with fairly 
uniform conditions, i.e., to coppice, coppice with standards, and 
well-developed selection forests. 

2. BY VOLUME.— BASED SOLELY ON GROWING STOCK. VON 
MANTEL'S METHOD. 

(a) Description of Method. — This is the simplest of the 
"formula methods." Indeed it is hardly to be ranked with them 
except in having the same underlying principle, namely, that the 
real yield must bear the same relation to the real growing stock 
as the normal yield (or, what is the same, the normal increment) 
bears to the normal growing stock. 

Von Mantel considers that the growing stock = the real incre- 

(i X ?\ 
—J ; 

for under normal conditions the half of that which grows during 
a rotation should be utilized and the other half remain as growing 
stock. This can be shown diagrammatically on next page. 

The yield during a rotation therefore = }4 the total volume 
produced or = all the volume produced during half of the rota- 
tion. The annual yield therefore equals the volume -*■ by half 

the number of years in the rotation, or, as Von Mantel puts it: 

V 
Y (yield, annual) = 



48 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



(b) Example. — A forest contains 6,810 M. feet board measure 

of spruce and fir to be managed on a 160-year rotation. The 

, . . _ V 6,810 6,810 . . , , , 

annual yield = — = -f^- = -^— = 851,250 feet board measure. 



160 



80 



r 

2 2 

c) Value and Application. — The greatest advantage of Von 
Mantel's formula is its utter simplicity; for it requires only 




the total volume and the rotation. It is thereby adapted to the 
most meagre data. 

Its disadvantages are: 1. That it assumes a definite rotation 
which is altogether impossible in view of the disturbing emer- 
gencies which always arise. 2. While it does automatically 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 49 

reduce any surplus or deficit in the growing stock, it requires 
half the rotation to do so. 

Its use is, therefore, restricted to determining the yield 
provisionally before detailed data can be obtained, and as a 
check on the results obtained by other methods. 

3. BY VOLUME.— BASED SOLELY ON GROWING STOCK. ME- 

THODE DE MASSON. 

(a) Description of Method. — Masson's formula closely ap- 
proximates that of Von Mantel, but is claimed by the French 
to have been developed independently, although based on the 
same principles. The formula is: 

2V 
Annual yield = — 

(b) Example. — A forest contains 6,8 10 M. feet board 
measure of spruce and fir to be managed on a 160-year rotation. 

2V 13 620 
The annual yield = — = —7 — = 851,250 feet board measure. 

# (c) Value and Application. — Precisely as in Von Mantel's 
method (No. 2). 

4. BY VOLUME.— BASED SOLELY ON INCREMENT. BY CUR- 

RENT ANNUAL INCREMENT (HUFNAGL). 

(a) Description of Method. — The chief data required are 
an exact determination of the current annual increment and an 
age-class table. The increment must be determined for all 
stands above a minimum age of, say, twenty years (correspond- 
ing to the minimum merchantable diameter) . The age-class dis- 
tribution must approach the normal relation. On these premises 
the allowed annual cut is taken directly as the sum of the annual 
increment for the entire working figure. It is a further essential 
of this method that the increment and growing stock be redeter- 
mined, by identical means, at frequent, regular intervals of not 
to exceed ten years. If the growing stock then shows an unin- 
tentional diminution, the yield was set at too high a figure; if, 
conversely, the growing stock, at the time of revision, shows an 
unintentional increase, the yield was set too low. 

4 



50 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



The method can also be applied to uneven-aged forests if 
the diameter of all trees above the minimum merchantable 
be determined. Calipering is preferable, but ocular estimates 
in three-inch classes, as described under " Estimates," Chapter I, 
Section 2, will suffice in default thereof. The diameter-class data, 
when checked by sample plots, will determine the relative nor- 
mality of the entire stand. If sufficiently normal, the annual cut 
is taken as directly equal to the increment; if the growing stock 
is excessive, more than the increment is taken; if the growing 
stock is deficient, less than the increment is taken. 

Periodic remeasurements of the growing stock and increment 
are essential. This should be done every ten, or, at most, every 
twenty years. 

(b) Example. — I Even-aged stand; II uneven-aged stand. 

I. The age-class table shows a fairly normal distribution 
(such as that under "Rotation," Chapter I, Section 3), over 1,000 
acres of even-aged spruce forest with a rotation of 80 years, as 
follows: 



Age 
No. 



Class 
years 



Area 
(acres) 



Site 
Quality 



Dens- 
ity 



Increment 
per acre * 



ft.b.m. 



Total Increment 



Fully 
Stocked 
ft.b.m. 



Reduced for 
Density 
ft.b.m. 



I 

II 
III 

IV 

V 

Blanks 
Total 



I — 20 


10 

21 —40 


30 

41 —60 


50 
6I-80 


70 
8l —I20 


IOO 



510 

496 
465 

443 

214 

32 



2,160 



III 
III 
III 
III 
III 
II/III 



612 
1,360 
1,649 

1.309 

782 



312,120 
674,560 
766,785 
579,887 
167,348 



312,120 
472,192 
306,714 
289,944 
50,204 



i,43i.i74 
= annual 
cut 



From yield table for spruce, Schwappach. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



51 



II. The diameter-class distribution of a certain ioo-acre area 
of pure Western yellow pine,* uneven aged, is assumed to be as 
follows : 



D. B. H., inches 

IO-I2 

13-15 
16-18 
19-21 

22-24 
25-27 
28-30 
31-33 



Average Volume 

60 ft.b.m. 

no ft.b.m. 

190 ft.b.m. 

310 ft.b.m. 

480 ft.b.m. 

710 ft.b.m. 
1,020 ft.b.m. 
1,410 ft.b.m. 



Number of Trees 

24O 
440 
770 
720 
580 
410 
190 
70 



Total Volume 

14,400 ft.b.m. 

48,400 ft.b.m. 
146,300 ft.b.m. 
223,200 ft.b.m. 
278,400 ft.b.m. 
291,100 ft.b.m. 
193,800 ft.b.m. 

98,700 ft.b.m. 



This distribution, as determined by sample plots, is fairly 
normal. Hence the current annual increment per cent is applied 
directly to the volume of each diameter class, e.g.. 



14,400 feet b.m. X4 %f 



48,400 
146,300 
223,200 
278,400 
291,100 
193,800 

98,700 



X2.87% 
X2.04% 

Xi.49% 
Xi.04% 
X .84% 
X .66% 

X .54% 



576 feet b.m. 
1,389 
2,985 
3,326 

2,895 

2,445 

i,279 

533 



15,428 ft.b.m. = annual cut. 



(c) Value and Application. — This method is adapted to all 
classes of stands, but requires an amount and kind of data which 
would enable the use of a more accurate method of determining 
the yield. Its chief use is, therefore, as a check on other methods ; 
for, after all, the increment is an important gauge of the correct- 
ness of the annual — or periodic — cut. 

Where yield tables are wanting for even-aged stands, or incre- 
ment figures for uneven-aged stands, an increment borer will 
give the desired data (see Chapter I, Section 1, Increment) for 



* Data chiefly from Bulletin 101, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agri- 
culture. 

t Adapted from European yield tables. 



52 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

representative trees of each age class or each diameter class, and 
these data can then be applied directly to the entire stand. 

5. BY VOLUME.— BASED ON GROWING STOCK AND INCREMENT. 
AUSTRIAN FORMULA (KAMERALTAXE). 

(a) Description of Method. — This, and the other so-called 
"formula methods" ("Vorrats methoden"), is characterized by 
the fact that the allowed annual cut is determined, apart from 
any plan of management, by mathematical calculation based on a 
formula. The main factors in this calculation are the growing 
stock and the increment. The aim in regulating the yield is to 
have the actual growing stock (V) and the actual increment (i) 
approach the normal forest characterized by a normal growing 
stock (nV) and a normal increment (ni). The period of time 
in which the actual growing stock is to be brought to point of 
normality is taken as the whole rotation. This is to be accom- 
plished by heavier cutting if the actual growing stock is greater 
than the normal growing stock, and lighter cutting if the actual 
growing stock is less than the normal growing stock. 

The normal growing stock is calculated by the formula— 

where z = the actual mean annual increment.* In even-aged 
stands it can also be calculated from yield tables by the formula 

n(a + b + c +. . . — ), where a, b, c . . . m are the values 

* Barrington Moore, in an article on "Methods of Regulating the Cut 
on National Forests," Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, 
Vol. VII., No. 1, has suggested that: " If, as is almost always the case, the real 
growing stock (Gr) is made up of only merchantable trees, it will be manifestly 
unfair to compare with this real growing stock a normal growing stock, which 
includes the small as well as the large trees. The result would be too small 
a surplus or too large a deficit. To obtain a more correct surplus or deficit 
a normal growing stock which includes only the merchantable trees should 

/ X R 
be used. This can be found by substituting for R in the expression — - — 

a quantity, R', equal to the difference between the age of the merchantable 
trees and the rotation. For example, if the rotation is 200 years, and trees 
become merchantable at 60 years, the growing stock of merchantable trees 

... I X 140. , , I X200 
necessary to leave on the area would be instead of . 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 53 

given in the table for each age class, n the number of age classes, 
and m the volume at the rotation age. 

, N . V-nV 
The main formula then follows: y (annual cut) =H . 

Here again i is the actual mean annual increment, not the normal * 

(b) Example.— An uneven-aged forest of Western yellow 

pine contains 3,500,000 feet board measure of timber 12 inches 

diameter breast high and over on 1,000 acres. The actual mean 

annual increment (Chapter I, Section 1) is assumed as 0.7 per 

cent, or 49,000 feet board measure ; the rotation as 200 years. 

, ri 200 X 24,500 
The normal growing stock — = — : = 2,450,000 leet 

, . , . V-nV 
board measure. The annual cut (y) then = H — = 24,500 

3,500,000 — 2,450.000 1,050,000 

! *o_j j*a = + — 2^ — =24,500+5,250 

200 200 

= 29,750 feet board measure. In this case there appears to be an 
excess growing stock. Adopting Mr. Moore's variation (see foot- 
note), the result would be: 

r'i 140 X 24,500 
Normal growing stock = — = = 1,715,000 

feet board measure. 

. V—nV 3,500.000—1,715,000 
The annual cut (y)=i+ = 24,500+ : — 

= 24,500+17,850 = 42,350 feet board measure. 

This, however, is not strictly accurate, due to the failure to 
consider the increment per acre of young growth. "If the area 
of young growth below merchantable size is known, the incre- 
ment can be found by determining the number of merchantable 
trees per acre which there would be if the stand were about 
normally stocked and contained no other age classes. The 
volume of such a stand divided by the average age of merchant- 

* There has been some dispute about this, but the matter seems settled 
by the authoritative pronouncement of Judeich, "Forsteinrichtung," 6th 
Edition, p. 360, and Martin, "Forsteinrichtung," pp. 216-217. 



54 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

able trees will give the increment per acre of the young growth 
below merchantable size." * 

E.g., area of young growth under 12 inches diameter breast 
high = 6 per cent of total area (1,000 acres) or 60 acres. A 
normally stocked stand of Western yellow pine 12 inches in 

diameter (about 60 years old) contains 5,850 board feetf ; = 

292.5 board feet = the increment per acre of the young growth 
below merchantable size. There are 60 such acres, hence 
292.5 X6o = 17,550 feet board measure. But the average density 
of stocking is only .7, so the real increment = 12,285. The incre- 
ment of the merchantable timber has already been figured at 
24,500 feet; this-fthe 12,285 increment on unmerchantable tim- 

ber = 36,785. Then — = = 2,574,950 feet board 

measure. 

m / \ V—nV , „ 3,500,000—2,574,950 
The annual cut(y) = i+ - = 36,785+ 0/^3 

= 41,410 feet board measure. 

(c) Value and Application. — Dating from a decree of the 
Vienna Hofkammer in 1788 (whence the name " Kameraltaxe ") , 
this method has won the cognomen of "Austrian," although 
in Austria it is now used only as a check on other methods 
of determining the yield (see Part Two). Adapted to rather 
primitive conditions, especially to irregular, uneven-aged forests, 
the Austrian formula has grave disadvantages in that it assumes 
both i and nV as constants, whereas in consequence of cutting 
and unforeseen contingencies they are always changing, e.g., 
becoming better by correct cutting, becoming worse by storms, 
windfall, etc. In view of these changing constants the formula 
cannot secure even an approach to normal during the next 
rotation unless the yield is revised at least every ten years. 
This revision is not a part of the original Kameraltaxe any more 

* Barrington Moore, ibid. 

f From Tables 10 and 19, Bulletin 101, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. Agric. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 55 

than is a plan of cutting (Distribution of Yield) so essential to a 
well regulated forest; for, as shown in Chapter I, Section i, 
no forest can be normal unless increment and age-class distribu- 
tion are normal. The normal increment and normal growing' 
stock alone do not suffice. Hence this and the other "formula 
methods" are all makeshifts (except as a check on other methods) 
and must be replaced by other and better methods as soon as 
conditions warrant. 

Realizing these deficiencies, Huber varied the Austrian 
method by using the current annual instead of the mean 'annual 
increment and distributing the surplus or deficiency in growing 
stock over the whole rotation in a decreasing series instead of 
equally. This variation is, therefore, a transition to the methods 
of Karl and of Hundeshagen, which are considered below (6 
and 7). 

6. BY VOLUME.— BASED ON GROWING STOCK AND INCREMENT. 
KARL'S METHOD. 

(a) Description of Method. — This method was probably 

suggested by the Austrian formula just described (No. 5) with 

Huber's modification. Karl takes the allowed annual cut as 

equal to the real current annual increment plus or minus the 

excess or deficiency of the actual growing stock when compared 

with the normal growing stock, distributed over a period of A 

years instead of over the entire rotation, as in the Austrian 

formula. The formula for the cut for the first year therefore 

. V-nV 
-*+— J- • 

This formula would apply accurately to subsequent years 
only if i were determined anew each year; for it changes con- 
stantly (see above under 5). In order to accomplish the approach 
to normal without an annual recalculation of i, a third expression is 

added to the formula, namely : — -. — X n where ni = the normal 

current annual increment and w = the number of years which 
have elapsed since the estimates were made. In the first year 



56 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

n = 0, and hence the entire expression = O. In consequence 
of the increase of n the annual cut would really have to be 
redetermined each year, but, for convenience, Karl presupposes 
the adoption of ten-year periods and makes n = 5, i.e., the middle 
of the ten-year period during which the annual yield is to be 
equal. At the end of the ten-year period a revision of the yield 
takes place. 

This third expression of the formula is always given the sign 
opposite that of the preceding expression. 

The entire formula is therefore: 

/ , \ . , V — nV (i — ni\ 
y (annual cut; = t ± -. — T I — -. — jn. 

In addition a simple plan of cutting (distribution of yield) is 
drawn up as a guide in the management of the forest. However, 
this plan of cutting plays no part in the determination of the 
yield, which is by formula alone. 

(b) Example. — An uneven-aged forest of Western yellow 
pine contains 3,500,000 feet board measure of timber 12 inches 
and over diameter breast high, on 1,000 acres. The actual 
mean annual increment is assumed at .7 per cent, the rotation 

ri 
at 200 years. nV then = — = 2,450,000 feet board measure. 

A, the period of distribution, is assumed as one-quarter of the 
rotation, or 50 years. f i, the actual current annual increment, is 
averaged (see Chapter I, Section 1) for the whole stand* and, re- 
duced for the density of stocking, is assumed as = 1 per cent or, in 
volume, =35,000 feet board measure. The normal current an- 
nual increment is obtained from fully stocked sample plots (or 
from yield tables in even-aged stands), and is assumed as 1.2 
per cent, or 42,000 feet board measure. (With a density of .85 

* It can also, in even- aged stands, be calculated from yield table (see 
No. 5). 

t This period of distribution is chosen according to local exigencies; it 
had best be somewhat longer than seems necessary, in order to avoid possible 
errors and to remain on the side of conservatism. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 57 

this would = an actual increment of 1.2 X.85 = 1.02 or, roughly, 
one per cent.) 

, . , V—nV (i — ni\ 

The annual cut by the formula then= 1 ± — — — ■ qp ^— — — J n 

3,500,000 - 2,450,000 (35, 000 ~ 42, 000 ^ m 

= 35,000 + — — — - { — ) 5 - 

35,000 + 2T,ooo — (140) 5 = 55,300 feet beard measure equals 
annual cut. 

Adopting Mr. Moore's variation of r' instead of r in develop- 
ing nV (see No. 5), nV = 1,715,000 feet board measure. The 

. . , V — nV (i — ni\ 
annual cut then equals t ± — -. ■ qF ^ — » — J n = 3 5, 000 + 

3,500,000 — 1,715,000 /35,ooo — 42,ooo\ . 

&*— 1 (— — — ) 5= 35,000+35,700 

— 700 = 70,000 feet board measure equals annual cut. 

Calculating the increment on the area of young growth, as 

was done under No. 5, the result would be: iomV, 2,574,950 

V - nV 
feet board measure. The annual cut then equals i ± -. T 



(1 'Vl'l \ 
— - — J n = 35,000+12,285 (the mean annual increment on the 

unmerchantable young growth, conse 
the current annual increment) + 



A 

unmerchantable young growth, conservative since less than 

3,500,000 - 2,574,950 

5o 

/-? 5,000 — 42,ooo\ _ , _ , 

{-- — ^ J 5 = 35,ooo + 12,285 + 18,501 - 700 = 65,- 

086 feet board measure equals annual cut. 

(c) Value and Application. — Karl's method, which dates 
from 1838, shows an advantage over the Austrian formula in so 
far as it uses the current annual instead of the mean annual 
increment, and in that it distributes the excess or deficit over a 
period adapted to local conditions instead of arbitrarily over the 
whole rotation. However, it is incorrect in making the third 

expression ( — ~r~) n always bear a sign opposite that of the 



58 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

V-nV 
expression -. — directly preceding it. This would presume 

that an increase or decrease of the actual growing stock is always 
followed by an increase or decrease in the actual current annual 
increment. But the exact opposite can happen, e.g., if overmature 
stands are replaced by thrifty young growth or if, contrariwise, 
the overmature stock is allowed to accumulate. Karl's error 
probably arose through considering the volume of a forest's 
growing stock as comparable to a sum of money which bears more 
interest as it increases in size. Judeich* therefore considers the 

third expression ( — -. — ) n not only incorrect, but unnecessary 

in view of the ten-year revisions ; which would reduce the f orm- 

V - nV 
ula to y = i ± — -. and would make the values in the above 

three examples, 56,000, 70,700, and 65,786 feet board measure 

respectively, the expression ( — -. — ) n = 700 falling away in 

each case. The only remaining difference between Karl's formula 
and the Austrian formula is, then, the use of current instead of 
mean annual increment and of a suitable period for distributing 
the surplus or deficit — 50 years in this case. There seems to 
be no reason why the latter modification can not be applied 
directly to the Austrian formula (No. 5) so that it reads: 

V — nV 
y = i + — -j ,f whereupon the values in the three examples 

under (5) would become : 

/ \ 3,500,000 — 2,4^0,000 

(1) 24,500 + -^— J * ~ = 45,5oo feet b.m. 

* Lorey's " Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft," 2d Ed., Vol. III., pp. 
421-2. 

t This is Heyer's formula as given by Martin's "Die Forsteinrichtung," 
2d Ed., p. 67, but Judeich, who made a special study of this point, considers 
it as under 9 below, and his precedent has been followed, although the results 
are exactly identical. (See example under No. 9.) 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 59 

(a) 24>500 + 3,S«x»,°°°-io,7iS,°°° = 6o200 feet bm 

(3) 36,785 + 3.5o°,ooo - ,,574,950 _ ^ ^ [^ 

With Judeich's suggested modification, the value of Karl's 
formula is as a rough method in irregular stands or as a check 
upon other methods of regulating the yield. For this purpose 
either it or the just suggested modification of the Austrian 
formula may be used according as the current or the mean 
annual increment has been determined. 

7. BY VOLUME.— BASED ON GROWING STOCK AND INCREMENT. 
HUNDESHAGEN'S METHOD. 

(a) Description of Method.— Hundeshagen conceives of the 
increment or yield as the interest on the growing stock and 
assumes that the actual yield is to the actual growing stock as the 

y ny 
normal yield is to the normal growing stock, or: — = — 

ny 
transposed this is y = v — which is the Hundeshagen formula. 

nv 

ny 
Hundeshagen calls the factor — the "use percent" ("Nutz- 

nv 

ungs prozent"). If nv is calculated by means of the mean annual 

/ ri\ . . . . . ny 2 

increment nv = — and ny is taken as = 1, then — ■ = — . Hun- 
\ 2 / nv r 

deshagen, however, calculates nv by means of yield tables (see 
method for even-aged stands under No. 5). ^ is the volume 
actually present in the forest. 

Hundeshagen suggests a short-cut method wherein for cal- 
culating nv and v only those stands are to be considered whose 

r 

age exceeds - and thereby a "partial use per cent" obtained. 

(b) Example. — An uneven-aged forest of Western yellow pine 
contains 3,500,000 feet board measure of timber 12 inches and 
over diameter breast high, on 1,000 acres. The mean annual 
increment (i) is assumed at .7 per cent, the rotation at 200 



60 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

years. Disregarding Hundeshagen's method of determining nv by 

ny 2 2 
means of yield tables and taking — = - = — = .01, the for- 
J nv r 200 

mula gives: 

y = v— = flX.oi = 3, 500,000 X.oi =35,000 feet board measure 

tVu 

equals annual cut. 

This result is identical with that obtained by Von Mantel's 
formula (No. 4) or by the Austrian formula (No. 5) modified 
(as suggested under No. 6) by making the period of distribution 
of excess or deficit equal half the rotation, e.g.: 

v — nv 
y = 1 + 

2 

ri 

but nv = — 

2 

(ri\ / 24,500X200^ 
hence y = z + v — \ — )= 24,500+ 3,500,000— ^— —J 

r 200 

2 2 

= 24,500 + 10,500 = 35,000 feet board measure equals annual 
cut. 

(c) Value and Application. — This method, published by 
Hundeshagen in 182 1, was really discovered by Paulsen in 1795, 
though Hundeshagen never knew of the latter's work until 1830. 
It presents no advantages over the methods already described 
and some very substantial disadvantages : 

(1) The assumption that the actual yield is to the actual 
growing stock as the normal yield is to the normal growing 
stock is not always correct, especially not where there are over- 
mature and deteriorating stands in the forest. 

(2) The value of v changes constantly, hence, to be strictly 
accurate, y would have to be redetermined annually. 

(3) The method provides no definite period for the distribu- 
tion of surplus or saving of deficit in the growing stock. A 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 61 

cutting plan is permissible, but does not affect the volume of 
the cut as determined by the formula. Hence under the method, 
overmature stands can be dragged through many years if the 
growing stock is excessive or immature stands cut off though the 
growing stock is already deficient. 

The only real use of the formula in irregular, uneven-aged 
stands is as a check on other methods. Its use in even-aged 
stands presupposes normal yield tables and regulated conditions, 
neither of which exist in America at present nor will exist for 
some time to come. 

8. BY VOLUME.— BASED ON GROWING STOCK AND INCREMENT. 
BREYMANN'S METHOD. 

(a) Description of Method.— Based on Hundeshagen's for- 
mula, Breymann assumed that the actual yield is to the normal 
yield as the actual average age is to the normal average age of a 

stand. Hence y = ny — (a = age). Now ny = ni (mean annual 

increment) and na = — . The average age can be determined 
either by area according to the formula: 

a = — - t — —7 — * wherein f h / 2 , f 3 , etc., equal the area of the 

J 1 +72+73 

various age classes and a h a*, a 3 , etc., equal their respective aver- 
age age (see examples under " Distribution of the Age Classes, " 
Chapter I, Section i, and under "The Latent Rotation," Chapter 
I, Section 3, "Rotation") or else the average age can be deter- 
mined by volume according to the formula: 

v l + v 2 + V* 
a = -: ; -• wherein v l , v 2 , v*. etc., equal the volumes of the 

— I -\ 5 H r. 

a 1 a" a 

various age or diameter classes and a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , etc., their respective 
age (see example under "Distribution of the Age Classes," 
Chapter I, Section i). 

(b) Example. — A forest of Western yellow pine containing 
3,500,000 feet board measure of timber 12 inches and over 



62 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

diameter breast high, on 1,000 acres, is essentially uneven-aged, 
but shows three distinct diameter classes: 12 to 18 inches, 
average 14 inches ("Black Jacks"), and 20 inches and over, 
average 26 inches ("yellow pine"). The volume of the former 
is 20 per cent of the total, or 700,000 feet board measure; the 
volume of the latter is 80 per cent of the total, or 2,800,000 feet 
board measure. The average age of a 14-inch "Black Jack" 
is 70.5 years, of a 26-inch "yellow pine" 285 years.* Then by the 
formula, 

v l + v 2 700,000 + 2,800,000 3,500,000 

= -T 2 -^ = — J o — = — , Q Q = 176 years. 

v v 700,000 2,800,000 10,000 + 9,818 

a 1 + ~a 2 70 + 285 

The adopted rotation is, however, only 200 years, hence 

Y 200 

na = - = — = 100. The current mean annual increment is 
2 2 

placed at 0.7 per cent, or 24,500 feet board measure. By the 
formula 

y = ny — = 24,500 ( — J =24,500 X 1.76 = 43, 120 feet board 

measure, equals annual cut. 

(c) Value and Application. — This method, promulgated by 
Breymann in 1854, aims in common with the other "formula 
methods" to secure an approach of the actual growing stock 
toward the normal growing stock. However, in addition to the 
employment of data which are difficult and subject to error in 
irregular stands and extensive conditions (e.g., normal incre- 
ment and average age calculations), it has the strong drawback 
that the adjustment of the excess or deficit in the growing stock 
is spread over the whole rotation, whereas the exigencies of the 
occasion usually warrant this adjustment in a fraction of that 
time. 

The method is, therefore, of little practical value except 
as a check upon other methods of regulating the yield. 

*From Table 9, Bulletin 101, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agric. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 63 

9. BY VOLUME.— BASED ON GROWING STOCK AND INCREMENT. 
HEYER'S METHOD. 

(a) Description of Method. — Heyer bases his formula on 
the following premises: 

(1) If a stand is normal, then an amount equal to the mean 
annual increment can be cut each year so long as the three 
requisites of normality are maintained, i.e., (a) normal growing 
stock, (b) normal increment, and (c) normal distribution of the 
age classes (see Chapter I, Section i, "The Normal Forest and 
Its Attributes"). 

(2) If normality in (a) and (b) exists, but (c) is abnormal, 
it can be made normal if the normal increment is cut annually 
or periodically, and the cut-over stands immediately regen- 
erated. 

(3) If the actual increment is less than the normal increment 
(the contrary can scarcely ever occur), then, even if the growing 
stock is normal, only the actual, not the normal, increment can 
be cut. 

(4) If the growing stock is abnormal it can be brought 
toward normality by either cutting less than the actual increment 
if the growing stock is too small, or cutting more if it is too large. 

(5) The period of distribution (x) of excess or deficit, i.e , 
the time during which an abnormal stand is to approach normal- 
ity, can be determined only with regard to local exigencies, it 
must be developed out of a general plan of management which 
is in consonance with the wishes of the owner. If v < nv then x 
must equal at least a period of years sufficient so that the sum 
of the actual increments during that period equal the difference 
between v and nv; where this is exactly the case then y (the 
annual cut) equals o. 

On these premises Heyer develops the formula: 
v + ix — nv 

y = x ; 

i is the actual mean annual increment, and hence really 
varies from year to year. Hence as i improves, the approach 
toward normality is accelerated to less than x years, as it grows 



64 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

smaller the approach toward normality is retarded to more 
than x years. This variation of i Heyer meets by calculating 
i not solely according to its present condition, but by conceiving 
of the expression i x as the increment during the period of x 
years, with regard to all the probable changes in increment 
during the x years. This is facilitated by the drawing up of a 
plan of cutting (distribution of yield) as outlined in Section 2 
of the present chapter. 

nv is found by the formula — in which Heyer takes i as the 

normal mean annual increment, but at the same time raises the 

question whether taking i as the actual mean annual would 

not be equally correct.* (It has now come to be universally 

considered as the correct method.) 

(b) Example. — An uneven-aged forest of Western yellow pine 

contains 3,500,000 feet board measure of timber 12 inches and 

over diameter breast high, on 1,000 acres. The mean annual 

increment equals .7 per cent, equals 24,500 feet board measure. 

The rotation is taken at 200 years. The normal growing stock 

. ri 200 X 24500 . ... 

equals — = = 2,450,000 feet, v is, therefore, > nv 

by 1,050,000 feet. This excess is, in view of local exigencies and 

T 200 

the wishes of the owner, to be distributed over — years = = 50 

4 4 

years =x. By the formula: 

v + ix — nv __ 3,500,000 + (24,500,50) — 2,450,000 
y ~ x 50 

3,500,000 + 1,225,000 - 2,450,000 
= = 45, 500 feet board measure 

equals annual cut, which is exactly the same result secured by 

the Austrian formula (No. 5) modified as suggested under 6, 

, s . . , v — nv , 3,500,000—2,450,000 

(c),t.e.,y = * + —-- = 24,500+^^ ^ =45,5oo 

x 50 

* Judeich, " Forsteinrichtung " in Lorey's "Handbuch der Forstwissen- 
schaft," 2d edition, Vol. III., p. 425, foot-note. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 65 

feet board measure. The only difference is if i x is modified 
to correspond with expected changes during the next x years — 
as outlined above. 

(c) Value and Application. — -Carl Heyer's formula dates 
from 1 84 1, and is perhaps the only one of the formula methods 
in active use to-day, having been adopted by the grand duchy 
of Baden for the determination of the volume yield; this is 
supplemented by a careful cutting plan (Distribution of Yield) for 
the next period of years (see Part Two, Chapter I). Gustav 
Heyer, in the revised edition of Carl Heyer's work,* adds a 
complete period distribution of the yield similar to that described 
under No. 17 below. However, this is possible only under regular 
conditions and in even-aged stands, and in no way destroys the 
effectiveness of Heyer's formula in irregular uneven-aged stands, 
although it correctly emphasizes the importance of adding 
to the mere volume determination of the yield a "when" 
and "where" by means of a careful cutting plan (distribu- 
tion of yield) as described below in Section 2 of the present 
chapter. 

With this in mind, Heyer's formula is directly applicable to 
the majority of American forests, especially to those where, 
as in virgin forests, the actual growing stock is far in excess 
of the normal growing stock and a reduction to normal is of 
prime importance. 

Summary and Comparison op the "Formula 
Methods" 

The "formula methods," or, more properly, the "growing 
stock methods" ("vorratsmethoden"), for there are other 
methods employing formulae to determine the yield, all aim 
to have the actual growing stock approach the normal. This is 
secured by a purely mathematical ratio of increment and growing 
stock, whereas, oftentimes, the character of the stands and other 

* Carl Heyer, "Die Waldertrags-Regelung," 1841. Second and third 
editions edited by Gustav Heyer, 1862 and 1883. 
5 



66 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



conditions of management which do not admit of mathematical 
expression are of more importance. 

In combination with a careful cutting plan (distribution of 
yield) the Heyer formula serves as a useful determinator in 
irregular, uneven-aged forests. It is better than the other 
formulae for the reasons already detailed under (c) "Value and 
Application," although the other formulae will serve as a useful 
check. The superiority of the Heyer formula is still further 
evident when the results of the examples based on identical 
premises are compared: 





y (annual cut) in feet board measure 


Current No. Method 


If nv = ri 
2 


If nv = r' i* 
2 


Including 

young 

growth, etc. 


S. Austrian Formula 


29,750 
55,300 

56,000 

35,ooo 
43,120 
45,5oo 

35,ooo 


42,350 
70,000 

70,700 
60,200 


41,410 


6. Karl's Formula 


65,086 


li — ni\ 


65,786 


\ a i 
7. Hundeshagen Formula 


8. Breymann's Formula 




9. Heyer's Formula 


55,286 


For Comparison: 

3. Methode de Masson ) 









10. BY VOLUME.— BASED ON DIAMETER CLASSES. METHODE 
DE 1883 (" FRENCH METHOD »).f 

(a) Description of Method. — Instead of constructing a 
stand table, the total volume of each diameter class should be 
determined. Some figures should also be obtained showing the 
number of trees of the diameter desired at the end of the rotation 
(exploitable diameter) which there would be per acre in a nor- 
mally stocked stand, if no other age classes were present. Since 

* See explanation under No. 5: (a) "Description of Method" and (b) 
"Example" of Austrian formula. 

t Adapted from Barrington Moore's article " Methods of Regulating the 
Cut on National Forests," in Vol. VII., No. 1, " Proceedings of the Society of 
American Foresters." 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 67 

these figures must be taken in the field, sometimes before the 
exploitable diameter has been decided upon, several diameters 
should be taken. 

When the desired exploitable diameter has been decided upon, 
determine f^om the growth figures the number of years necessary 
to produce this diameter. This number of years, lengthened by 
a few years to allow for a possible delay in reproduction, will be 
the rotation. 

Divide the trees shown by the estimates into three groups as 
follows : 

ist group, old trees. Those containing two- thirds of the 
exploitable diameter and above; e.g., if the exploitable diameter 
is 30", this group would contain trees between 20" and 30". 

2d group, medium trees. Trees having a diameter falling 
between one-third and two-thirds of the exploitable diameter; 
e.g., trees between 10" and 20". 

3d group, young trees. Everything with a diameter less than 
one-third of the exploitable diameter. 

The calculation of the yield is based on groups 1 and 2, and 
is made in the following manner: 

Find the volume of each of the first two groups. Then if the 
volume of the old trees is to that of the medium trees as 5 is to 3 
the proportion of the two groups may be considered normal.* 
If the proportion is normal it will be possible to cut the group 
of old trees, plus their increment, during the first third of the 
rotation, the increment, of course, being figured for only half 
of the third of the rotation. 

But, first of all, it is necessary to ascertain whether or not 
the volume as a whole is too great or too small. This is done by 
finding the total volume which there would be if half of the 

* This ratio is based on the relative age of the old group and the medium 
group; it will vary with the length of the rotation, the conditions of growth, 
and the species. In the present instance, if the rotation age is 150, each group 
covers 50 years, i.e., the old group 100-150, average 125; the medium group 
50-100, average 75. Then the old group is to the medium group as 125 : 
75 = 5 =3- 



68 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

entire area were covered with trees of just exploitable size* (not 
of very large mature trees). In obtaining this volume the num- 
ber of exploitable trees per acre, called for above, is used. The 
result should be approximately equal to the sum of the old and 
medium trees. If the result is less the forest contains a surplus; 
if more, it contains a deficit. There are five distinct possibilities : 
(i) The volume of the old and volume of the medium trees 
may be in the proportion of 5 13, and sum of their volumes 
normal. In this case nothing further is necessary before the 
actual calculation of the cut. 

(2) The volume of old and medium trees may be in the pro- 
portion of 5 13, but their sum less than normal. In this case 
it will be necessary to increase the growing stock. This can be 
done by cutting, during the first third of the rotation, only the 
old trees, without their increment, or, if the area is very badly 
understocked, by cutting less than the old trees. 

(3) The volume of old and medium trees may not be in the 
proportion of 5 13, and their sum nevertheless normal. This is 
adjusted by transfers from the group which is too large to that 
which is too small. 

(4) The volume of old and medium trees may not be in the 
proportion of 5 13, and their sum less than normal. This will 
probably mean that the volume of old trees is deficient, and 
must be increased by cutting less than the otherwise allowable 
volume of old trees. 

(5) The volume of old and medium trees may not be in the 
proportion of 5 : 3, and their sum more than normal. 

This could occur only with an excess in the old group. To 
correct this, find the volume of old trees necessary to make the 
ratio 5 : 3 with the volume of the medium trees, and which, 
added to the volume of medium trees, will give a normal growing 
stock. The difference between this volume and the actual 
volume of old trees is surplus. This surplus must generally 

* In dealing with open stands, such as Western yellow pine in the South- 
west, the area must be considered as fully stocked with exploitable trees, but 
due allowance must be made for natural openings and bare places. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 69 

be removed during the first third of the rotation, for the entire 
area will be cut over once during that time. Even though it 
were desirable to distribute this surplus over a longer period, 
such a course would generally be impossible, because in virgin 
forests, most of them of difficult accessibility, the first cut must 
be heavy per acre to justify logging. Later cuttings may, with- 
out hardship to purchasers, be made lighter. 

When several species occur in mixture all are regulated 
together without affecting the method. If one species has a 
more rapid growth and is shorter lived, requiring a shorter 
rotation, its exploitable diameter should be made lower than 
that of the other species. 

The whole calculation is checked by figuring what per cent 
of the total volume is represented by the allowable cut. This 
per cent, after subtracting the surplus, should be approximately 
the growth per cent of the group of old trees. 

The area check on this method is applied as follows: 

The whole working circle (working figure) is to be gone over 
in one-third of the rotation. Since the rotation may be long, 
this third is further divided into periods during which the plan 
is to run without revision. If these periods are too short an 
unnecessary expense will be incurred by frequent reconnaissance 
work, whereas if they are too long there is danger that the effects 
of original errors may accumulate. A period of about 20 years 
seems reasonable. Thus if the rotation is 180 years, the whole 
working circle will be cut over in 60 years. If the period during 
which the plan is to run be 20 years, the area is divided on the 
basis of topography into three parts, each containing about an 
equal volume, and each to be cut over in 20 years. In some 
cases, where the working circle does not lend itself to a division 
into parts containing equal volumes, it may be divided into 
unequal parts, each part to be cut over in a period bearing the 
same relation to the one-third of the rotation as the part bears 
the whole working circle. The part containing the largest 
proportion of overmature and deteriorating timber should be 
cut during the first period. This part may be further subdivided 



70 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



for convenience into watersheds forming natural logging units 
or groups of units (blocks). 

(b) Example. — Total area of working circle = 200,000 acres. 

Minimum merchantable D. B. H. = 10". 

Size of material desired: Sugar pine and yellow pine = 30". 
Incense cedar = 24". 

The group of old trees will include those 20" and over D. B. H. 
The medium trees will include those between 10" and 20" 
D. B. H. 

The average length of time required to produce a tree 30" 
D. B. H., considering the important species, is 160 years. The 
period of reproduction is approximately 20 years. Hence the 
rotation will be 160 +20, or 180 years. Incense cedar is shorter 
lived and more rapid growing, hence will be considered exploit- 
able at 24" * 



Table of Estimates 



Medium Trees 



Old Trees 



Volume M. Feet 


Volume M. Feet 


Sugar 
pine 


Yel- 
low 
pine 


Incense 
cedar 


Total 


D. B. H. 

inches 


Sugar 
pine 


Yel- 
low 
pine 


Incense 
cedar 


Total 


Volume of 


Volume of 




IO 


Volume of 


Volume of 




sugar pine 
and yellow 


incense ce- 
dar for each 




II 
12 


sugar pine 
and yellow 


incense ce- 
dar for each 




pine for 


diameter 




13 


pine for 


diameter 




each diam- 


class up to 




etc. 


each diam- 


class 16" 




eter class 
up to 19", 
inclusive. 


15", inclu- 






eter class 
20" and 
over. 


and over. 






200,000 






1 ,800,000 



* This exploitable diameter for incense cedar will cause a slight inac- 
curacy in that the medium trees should be taken to 8" instead of 10" to 
correspond with the 24". On the other hand, the volume between 8" and 10" 
will be small, and if desired can be allowed for by sample tallies over a small 
percentage of the strips. The cutting of a short-lived species to a lower 
diameter limit is desirable in this case because the area is gone over only once 
in 60 years. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLAKS 71 

From the table we find the actual proportion of old and me- 
dium trees to be: 

Old trees = 1,800,000 M. feet 
Medium trees = 200,000 M. feet 

Total, 2,000,000 M. feet 

The normal proportion should be: 

Old trees, 2,000,000X1 = 1,250,000 
Medium trees, 2,ooo,oooXf = 750,000 

But the normal growing stock over the whole area, considering 

half of the area stocked with 30" trees, should be 1,120,000 M. 

This should be divided between the two groups as follows: 

Old trees, 1,1 20,oooXf= 700,000 M. 
Medium trees, i,i20,oooX|= 420,000 M. 

1,120,000 M. 

Hence, although there is a surplus of 1,800,000 — 700,000 = 
1,100,000 M. feet of old trees, there is a deficit of 420,000 — 
200,000 = 220,000 M. in the medium trees. If all the old trees 
were cut during the first third of the rotation the growing stock 
would be depleted. Therefore 220,000 M. feet will be taken 
from the lower diameters of the large trees, chiefly from the 
more valuable species, and added to the medium trees. The 
resulting surplus will be 1,100,000 — 220,000 = 880,000 M. This 
surplus is to be removed during the first third of the rotation. 
The cut for the first third of the rotation will therefore be the 
880,000 M. surplus and the 700,000 M. normal volume of old 
trees, plus the increment on their sum. This increment will be 
12,000 M. per annum, or 12,000X30 = 360,000 for the 60-year 
period.* Therefore the annual cut for the first third of the 
rotation will be: 

800,000 + 700,000 + 360,000 
Y = — = 32,333 M. feet. 

This amounts to 1.61 per cent of the total volume. Not 
counting the surplus or increment on the surplus, there will be 

* The increment is taken for only half of the period because cutting is 
• going on. 



72 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

a cut of only 853,000 M. feet for the 60-year period, or an annual 
cut of only 14,216 M. feet. This is but .71 per cent of the total 
volume, or approximately the increment on the group of old 
trees. 

In carrying out this method, site qualities producing very 
marked differences in growth must be distinguished in the field 
work and kept separate in the computations. For instance, in 
some of the very dry limestone soils of the Western yellow-pine 
belt of the Southwest the trees are small and stunted, and even 
when mature hardly reach the diameter of poles on ordinary sites. 
Such areas if small and unimportant may be thrown out and 
ignored; but if of some extent they should generally receive a 
separate calculation of yield and proper consideration in the final 
allotment of the cut. 

(c) Value and Application. — A disadvantage of the French 
system is that it requires the tallying of trees down to one- 
third of exploitable diameter. This means that if the ex- 
ploitable diameter is 24" everything above 8" must be tallied. 
It is, therefore, best adapted to a high diameter limit and long 
rotations, which is, however, generally the case in many of our 
selection forests. The advantages of the method are elasticity 
and a degree of accuracy not attainable with formulae. 

11. BY VOLUME.— BASED ON DIAMETER CLASSES. INDIAN 
METHOD.* 

(a) Description of Method. — This method is based on the 
principle that a certain number of trees reach a size suitable 
for cutting every year or period of years. The aim of the method 
is to cut just this number of trees. 

The data required are: 

1. A careful enumeration of the growing stock. For this 
purpose five or six broad classes are made fr >m seedlings up to 
mature trees. 

* Adapted from Barrington Moore's article, "Methods of Regulating the 
Cut on National Forests," in Vol. VII., No. I, "Proceedings of the Society of 
American Foresters." 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 73 

2. Growth figures, particularly showing the number of years 
required to pass through each class. 

3. Figures showing the percentage of mortality suffered by 
each class as it passes into the next class above and into the 
final or mature class. 

The rotation is generally the sum of the number of years 
required to pass through each age class till the exploitable size 
is reached, with generally a few years added on to make it con- 
servative. The felling period is a convenient subdivision of 
the rotation and should be at least the length of time required 
to produce enough material to justify the next cut. 

The annual cut is calculated in the following manner: The 
number of trees in each class is multiplied by the percentage 
which will survive till maturity. The results are added and then 
divided by the rotation plus one-half of the felling period.* 

In order to find the growing stock of Class I trees the average 
annual yield as found above is multiplied by half of the felling 
period. In order to allow for mortality this number is raised 
by multiplying by 

/ Mortality per cent \ . 

The growing stock thus found is compared with the actual 
growing stock to find whether there is a surplus or deficit. The 
annual cut is allotted accordingly, distributing this surplus or 
deficit over a certain period according to the proportion of 
lower classes and reproduction. 

The area check is applied by prescribing the order of the 
fellings through the different subdivisions (compartments) of 
the working circle. A table is drawn up showing for each year 
the subdivision on which the cut is to be located and number 
of trees to be removed. 



* Half of the felling period is added to the rotation to allow for the num- 
ber of Class I trees (the largest class) which should always be on the ground, 
because there should always be a number of Class I trees equal to the 

Felling period . , 
2 X average annual yield. 



74 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

(b) Example. — 







Total Growing Stock 
Class 






Species 


I 
28" and 

over 
D.B.H. 


11 
24" to 28" 


III 

18" to 24" 


IV 
12" to 18" 


V 
6" to 12" 


VI 

Below 
6" D.B.H. 


Yellow pine .... 


13,178 


11,366 


19,770 


42,577 


117,590 


215,667 



Rotation = 150 years 
Felling period = 15 years 

From a table showing per cent of each class, reaching Class I, 
and the per cent of Class I surviving 15 years, the following 
calculation is made: Average annual yield = 

(13178 X .95) + (11366 X .83) + (19770 X.66) + (42577 X 

150 + ¥ 
.50) + (117590 X .30) + (215667 X .10) 
150 + ¥ 
12519 + 9472 + 13180 + 21288 + 35277 + 21567 



157-5 



157-5 
719 trees per annum. 



The growing stock of Class I trees, which there should always 
be, is therefore 719 X V 5 - X 1.025 = 5532. 

Since there are 13,178 Class I trees, a surplus of 13,178 — 5,532 
= 7,646 trees exists. 

The cut for the period over which it is desired to distribute 
the surplus will be: The present Class I trees, plus the total 
number of trees reaching Class I in the period, minus the growing 
stock, all divided by the period. 

A modification may be made by calculating the annual yield 
on the basis of only the upper classes (the first three or four) 
instead of on all classes. The sum of these classes is then divided 
by the number of years which the lowest class used will take to 
become Class I instead of by the rotation. 

(c) Value and Application. — Practically the only place 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 75 

where the single tree method is used is in India. There it is 
used almost to the exclusion of all other methods. It is par- 
ticularly well adapted to mixed tropical forests in which only one 
or two of the many species found is merchantable. 

The disadvantages of the method are its lack of elasticity, 
its complexity, and liability to error; it also requires as many 
data as better methods. Hence it should be used only in excep- 
tional cases. 

12. BY VOLUME.— BASED ON DIAMETER CLASSES. DIAMETER- 
CLASS method:(hufnagl). 

(a) Description of Method. — I, yield in volume only; II,. 
yield in volume and in number of trees. 

I. For uneven-aged (selection) forests the yield can be deter- 

r 
mined if all stands or trees more than — vears old are known and 

2 • 

their increment. This presupposes the fixation of the rotation 
age (Chapter I, Section 3, "Rotation"). By means of ring- 
counts on stumps of average diameter it is then determined 

r 

at what diameter breast high the trees have an age equal to-. 

All trees of this diameter and over are next estimated — prefer- 
ably in three-inch diameter classes — and their volume and 
current annual increment determined (see Chapter I, Sections 
1 and 2). 

r 

Y then equals volume of trees or of diameter classes - years 

and over, plus increment thereof in — years; this sum divided by 

4 

r 

-. (For underlying theory see Formula Methods above.) 

II. Going a step further, diameter can be substituted for age. 
After determining at what diameter, and upwards, the trees 
are most merchantable, it follows that all trees of this diameter 
and larger are merchantable and should, other things being equal, 
be cut in the near future, i.e., during a period of years required 



76 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

for the next lowest diameter class or classes to produce an equal 
number of merchantable stems. But since the lower diameter 
classes contain more trees than the higher classes, therefore 
more than replacing those cut in the higher class, proportionately 
more of the oldest stems can be cut. 

To express this numerically, the period of years separating 
the diameter classes must be known, i.e., the average age of the 
average tree in each diameter class. Let this value equal a h 
(h, a 3 , etc. The volume of the average tree in each diameter 
class must also be known (volume tables, measurement of repre- 
sentative trees, etc.). Let this value equal v h v 2 , vz, etc. Let, 
finally, the number of trees in each diameter class equal n x , n 2 , n 3 , 
etc., and the formula follows: 

T , n 4 , n 3 — n 4 . n 2 — n 3 . th — th 

Y = — Vi + v 3 + v 2 + Vi 

#4 — #3 di — a S # 3 — #2 (h — #1 

Hufnagl further advocates the comparison of y obtained 
by this method with y obtained by current annual increment 
(method No. 4 above) and, if necessary, the use of only the 
first one or first two of this series of expressions so as to make 
the results correspond, and also periodic revisions of the data 
on which the method is based. 

Since the method is particularly intended for selection forests 
it is Hufnagl's theory that the cutting cycle shall equal approx- 
imately di — ds years, i.e., the time required for the highest non- 
merchantable diameter class to become merchantable. 

(b) Example. — A certain uneven-aged forest of Western 
yellow pine is to be managed on a 200-year rotation. Stump 

y 

analyses show that at the age of - = 100 years the average diam- 
eter breast high equals 18 inches.* The estimate of all trees 
over 18 inches diameter breast high equals 1,085,200 feet board 
measure, divided as shown below. The current annual incre- 
ment is assumed at .7 per cent. 

* Adapted from Bulletin 101, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agric. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 77 

(1,085.200+ /7,596X200V 
J = 14,650 feet board 

2 
measure = annuai cut. 

Substituting diameter for age (variation II) and assuming 
the diameter classes to be as follows*: 

D. B. H. Average Volume Intervening Years 

inches feet b. m. No. of Trees Total Volume (from diameter 

growth tables) 

IO-I2 60 240 14,400 

13-15 no 440 48,400 

16-18 190 770 146,300 

I9-2I 3IO 720 223,200 

22-24 480 (w.) 580 {iii) 278,400 45 (a 2 — «i) 

25-27 710 (i> 2 ) 410 (n 2 ) 291,100 47 (a 3 -a 2 ) 

28-30 1,020(2/3) 190 (w 3 ) -93,800 48 (a 4 —a 3 ) 

31-33 1,410 (» 4 ) 70 (« 4 ) 8,700 

Now, having determined that the trees are most merchant- 
able at a diameter of 22 inches and upward, it follows that the 
last four diameter classes are ripe for cutting. Applying the 
formula : 

w 4 70 . ■ , 

Y = v 4 = -- X 1410 = 2,059 f eet o- m - 

CLi — #3 4° 

, n 3 — m 190 — 70 . J - 

H v s = — - — ^- L - X 1020 = 2,550 feet b. m. 

Gi — a 3 48 

ih-fh 410 - 190 , 

H v-, = X 710 = 5,204 leet b. m. 

<h - (h 3° 

Wi — w 2 580 — 410 

-i ■ vi = X 480 = 4,080 feet b. m. 

a% — d\ 20 

Y— 13,893 feet b. m. = 
annual cut. 

Comparing this with the results obtained from similar data 
by method No. 4 equals 15,428 feet board measure, the annual 
cut does not appear excessive. If, however, the result were 
appreciably higher than that by method No. 4, the formula 

♦Adapted from Bulletin 101, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agric. 



78 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

ohould be cut down to the first one or two expressions of the 
series; e.g., if to expressions i and 2 it would be y = i> 4 

di — CLz 

H v 3 = 2,059 + 2,550 = 4,609 feet b. m. 

#4 — #3 

The cutting cycle equals a 4 — 03 = 48 years, or, roughly, 50 
years. 

(c) Value and Application. — This method, first published 
by Hufnagl in 1893,* * s excellently adapted, especially in its 
second variation, to the irregular and over-mature selection 
forest which is so commonly encountered in all parts of America. 
It is especially well suited to virgin stands, tending to cut the 
excess growing stock (of overmature timber) within the first 
cutting cycle, and yet providing ample material for a second cut 
at the end thereof (in 50 years from first cut). 

The data which are required are those of every thorough 
reconnaissance preliminary to a working plan, namely, data on 
diameter-class distribution, on number of trees in each (in repre- 
sentative stands), of volume, and of diameter growth or, in the 
first variation, of increment (current annual) . If it is not feasible 
to tally diameter classes for the tract, carefully chosen, fully 
stocked sample plots of varying site classes will suffice, but 
when applied to the total stand must be reduced to correspond 
with the varying density of stocking. 

When accompanied by a plan of cutting (distribution of yield) 
for the next decade, the method is perhaps the most practical 
yet invented for irregular selection forests. Indeed, it is intended 
for just such conditions in the more remote parts of Austria. 

13. BY AREA AND VOLUME.— FOR ENTIRE FOREST. RUSSIAN 
METHOD. 

(a) Description of Method.f — This method is primarily 
adapted to forests managed under the shelterwood or shelter- 

* " Oesterreichische Vierteljahrschrift fur Forstwesen," 1893, pp. 177 and 
following. 

f From a translation by Mr. Raphael Zon of the Forest Service. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 79 

wood-selection system (see Chapter I, Section 3) wherein the 
timber is cut off gradually and regeneration stretches over a 
period of years known as the "regenerative period." The 
method is described as follows: 

"The area is taken for the measure of the annual cut, al- 
though it is generally admitted that in such forests the area is 
less appropriate measure than in forests with clear cutting. In 
selection forests there cannot be any annual cutting area, but 
an area which is to be cut over during the number of years 
which is contained in the regenerative period, since during that 
period the entire forest area must be cut off. Instead of an 
annual cutting area in selection forests there must be taken a 
periodic area, the size of which is obtained by dividing the area 
of the forest by the quotient resulting from division of the 
rotation by the regenerative period. In order to obtain an equal 
annual cut each year it is necessary to determine the amount of 
standing timber on the periodic area which is to be cut over 
and then aim to cut annually only an equal part of that amount. 
Of course this tendency to cut every year an equal amount 
of the standing timber may be disturbed at the time of a good 
seed year, when it will be desirable to cut over a larger area, 
and cut less during the years when there is no seed. Since, 
however, the regenerative period is always of some length, it 
will always be possible to equalize to some extent the amount 
to be cut within that period. On a large area which is being 
cut over within a given regenerative period it is possible to 
increase during poor seed years, the so-called preliminary cut- 
tings, which allow more light into the stand, while in good seed 
years such cuttings may be suspended and stress laid chiefly 
upon so-called regenerative cuttings, which secure natural 
reproduction. If the area which is being cut over consists of 
several different types containing different species, the chances 
are that the seed years will not occur in all the species 
at the same time. This again may help to equalize the cut- 
tings from year to year. Finally, even if it is impossible 
to equalize the amount of timber to be cut every year, this 



80 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

drawback will be more than offset by the advantages of this 
method. 

"Properly speaking, not only the entire stand over the area 
which is to be cut over within the regenerative period should be 
taken into account in determining the annual cut, but also the 
increment that will take place within the regenerative period. 
This, however, is a very complicated undertaking, and it is best 
to determine the annual cut within the regenerative period 
merely on the basis of the actual standing timber, leaving the 
future revisions of the working plan to take account of the 
increment." 

(b) Example. — A thousand-acre forest of Western yellow 
pine, containing 3,500,000 feet board measure, is to be man- 
aged by the shelterwood-selection system with a regenerative 
period of approximately 50 years. The rotation is set at 200 
years. 

1,000 
The periodic cutting area = =250 acres. The cutting 

plan (distribution of yield) shows that the 250 acres selected 

3,500,000 

for cutting in the next 50 years contain not = 875,000 

4 

feet board measure, but, since this part of the stand is somewhat 

1 .000,000 

overmature, 1,000,000 feet board measure. ythen= — = 

50 

20,000 feet board measure = the annual cut for the next 50-year 
cutting period. 

(c) Value and Application. — This method is exceedingly 
simple and applicable only under very rough conditions, as is 
shown by the fact that it dodges all calculations of increment. 
It has the advantage of simplicity and the disadvantage of being 
too ironclad. It is, however, a primitive recognition of the 
important interrelation of volume and area in the determination 
of the yield. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 81 

14. BY AREA AND VOLUME.— BASED ON AGE CLASSES. DIRECT 
METHOD (HUFNAGL*). 

(a) Description of Method. — If the volume and the area 
of "the oldest stands which, presumably, will be cut in the next 
ten or twenty years, is known, the average volume per acre 

v 
equals -. This volume multiplied by the allowed annual cut 

in area equals the allowed annual cut in volume. 

(b) Example. — Referring to example of method No. 1 above: 

Variation I. Area not reduced. Annual cutting area equals 62.5 

acres. The volume of the oldest stands to be cut in the next 

twenty years (oldest age class) equals 1,000,000 feet board 

measure, their area is 250 acres. 

v 
Then the average volume per acre = - = 4,000 feet board 

measure. 

The volume of the annual 0^ = 4,000X62.5 = 250,000 feet 
board measure. 

Variation II. Area Reduced. Using the figures given in the 
example of Variation II, Method No. 1 above: Annual cutting 
area reduced to terms of Site Quality I equals 6.64 acres. The 
stands ripe for cutting in the next twenty years (oldest age class) 
show an average stocking of .7 and an average site quality III, 
and hence (from yield tables or from measurements of sample 
plots of mature fully stocked stands of varying site qualities) 
an average volume of 68,000 X. 7 =47,600 feet board measure 
per acre. 6.64 acres of site quality I are to be cut per annum. 
This is equivalent (see example, method No. 1, Var. II) to 10 
acres of site quality III. Hence the annual cut =47,600X10 = 
476,000 feet board measure. 

Variation III. Hufnagl. Using the figures in the example 
under method No. 1, and the example under Variation I of the 
present method: 

* Hufnagl, "Praktische Forsteinrichtung," is the source of this and the 
subsequent method (No. 15). 
6 



82 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

V 

The average volume per acre = - = 4,000 feet board measure. 

The volume of the annual cut = 4,000X29 = 116,000 feet 
board measure. 

(c) Value and Application. — As noted under similar heading 
in method No. 1 , the method has all the disadvantages of a fixed 
value for the rotation, instead of a naturally adjustable one, 
and allows none of the free play so necessary for the best silvi- 
culture. Variations I and III are exceedingly simple, and hence 
quite well adapted to forests with fairly uniform conditions, i.e., 
coppice and coppice with standards. Variation II is too com- 
plex for all but the most intensive conditions, and requires all 
the data, while possessing none of the advantages of other and 
better methods. Obviously the method presupposes an age- 
class table, and hence a forest composed of fairly even-aged 
stands. It is therefore essentially not a method for selection 
forests. Furthermore, it is applicable only to forests wherein 
the oldest age class does not average more than r +5 years, i.e., 
is not more than 5 years older than the rotation. This condition 
is seldom attainable in American high forest, and for high forests, 
aside from its occasional use to check other figures, the method 
therefore lapses into merely historical interest and as the basis 
of the stand method (No. 16) and the various period methods 
(No. 17) discussed below. 

15. BY AREA AND VOLUME.— BASED ON AGE CLASSES. HUF- 
NAGL'S METHOD. 

(a) Description of Method. — Hufnagl's premise is that the 
sustained yield can be determined directly if the volume and the 

Y 

increment of the stands now more than — years old is known. 
This method presupposes a stand table containing the volume 

Y 

and area of all stands of over — -years. To this volume is to be 

r 

added, also, the increment of these stands in the next — years; 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 83 

for since the area of these stands diminishes each year, and in 

Y 

the year — = 0, the increment can only apply, on an average, to 

half the area. 

As to the increment, Hufnagl distinguishes two variations 
of his method according as I the current, or II the mean annual 
increment is used. 

r 

I. The current annual increment of each stand over - 3'ears 

old having been determined (by yield tables or by field 
measurements, Chapter I, Section 1), the sum of these incre- 
ments is used in the formula which follows. 

V 

II. The mean annual increment equals— . It can be deter- 
mined from yield tables or, empirically, by measuring average 
stocked stands of average site quality whose age approximates 

V 
r years. — then equals the mean annual increment. 

HufnagPs formula then follows : (letting V equal the volume 

y 

of stands - years and over, A their area, i the increment in board 

feet per acre per annum, current or mean) : 

v + a .i .r 

r- i 

r 

2 

If i equals mean annual increment it will usually be 10-20 per 
cent less than the current annual increment. This makes its 
use the more conservative of the two. 

(b) Example. — In a forest of 2,160 acres with a rotation of 
80 years, the stands 40 years and older have a volume of 3,21 1,000 
feet board measure on 1,120 acres. The mean annual incre- 

2 211 OOO 

ment for the rth (80th) year equals — '■ X .007 = 2,867 X 



84 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

.007 = 20.069 = 20 feet board measure. Then by the formula: — 

v + a . i . r 

_ 4 _ 3,211,000 + (1,120 X 20) 20 

r_ 40 

2 

3,211,000 + 4 48,000 

= 91,475 feet board measure = annual cut. 

(c) Value and Application. — Hufnagl's method shows much 
originality and is applicable to even-aged stands of only mod- 
erate regularity, the very conditions encountered in many 
American forests. Its age-class differentiation is very simple, 
as is also the volume and increment determination. The latter 
had best be the mean annual increment, and can readily be 
calculated from sample plots if yield tables are lacking. 

A disadvantage of the method is the rigid fixation of the 
rotation age, which should really be a flexible quantity; but if 
this is offset by frequent revisions at regular intervals the method 
will pass muster, especially in the irregular stands common to 
most parts of America. If this method of calculating the yield 
is adopted, it must always be supplemented by a careful cutting 
plan (distribution of yield) (see Section 2). 

16. BY AREA AND VOLUME— BASED ON AGE CLASSES. THE 
STAND METHOD (JUDEICH'S "BESTANDSWIRT- 
SCHAFT »)• 

(a) Description of Method. — Judeich* bases his method on 
the undoubted fact that no method of determining the yield 
for a period of years in advance — some even attempting to do so 
for the whole rotation or a substantial part thereof — is accurate 
without frequent revisions which recognize the unexpected 
changes inevitable in every stand no matter how carefully 
managed. He therefore makes no attempt to regulate the yield 
for more than a decade in advance, but prescribes not only a 
revision, but a new plan at the end of the decade. 

* Adapted from Lorey, "Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft," 2d edit., 
Vol. III. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 85 

In order to secure a sustained yield the annual cut is cal- 
culated with the following three regulating factors: 

(a) The normal yearly cutting area or volume; 

(b) The distribution of the age classes; 

(c) The results of previous cuttings. 

The more the results of previous cuttings, especially with regard 
to their effect on the distribution of the age classes, are available, 
the greater is the justification in regulating the yield for only 
a decade in advance. Where there has been no previous working 
plan nor adequate record keeping (with especial respect to 
volume, area, and distribution of age classes) the yield must be 
determined two, three, or at most four decades in advance. 

Judeich does not give any certain method of ascertaining 
the yield — either in volume or in area — but adapts this to the 
peculiar exigencies of each forest. The object of the working 
plan is the attainment of normality in the distribution of the 
age classes; this is secured by a correct cutting series (see Sec- 
tion 2) and cutting policy. 

The cutting policy selects for the next decade or two, or r 
at most, three or four, all the stands or groups of stands which 
require cutting for one or more of the following reasons: 

1 . Administrative necessity. 

2. Disease and decadence (overmaturity) . 

3. Maturity. 

4. Inferiority, slow growth. 

The sum of stands ready to cut for reasons 1-4 gives in area 
and volume the cut for the next period, subject to the following 
regulating factors: 

(a) The normal yearly cutting area or volume. 

(b) The distribution of the age classes. 

(c) The results of previous cuttings. 

(a) Can be determined by any of the methods already 
described, by area if the distribution of the age classes is not 
too abnormal (e.g., method No. 1), by volume, preferably, if the 
distribution of the age classes is far from normal and there is a 
preponderance of overmature timber (e.g., method No. 9). 



86 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

Judeich expressly states that his method is not restricted to 
a financial rotation, but is equally well adapted to rotations on 
other bases (see Chapter I, Section 3, " Rotations"), e.g., that 
of greatest volume or of technical production. 

(b) Example. — Assuming a general stand table such as that 
given in Chapter I, Section 2, from this it appears that the follow- 
ing stands* are in need of cutting during the next ten years: 

Compt. Subcompt. Area Stand 

Reason No. Letter acres Species and M. ft. b.m. 

1. Administrative necessity .... .... .... .... 

2. Disease and decadence. .9 b 61 Spruce 900 .... 

10 .... 50 Fir 100 

3. Maturity 6 .... 100 " 1,100 " 75 

8 .... 40 " 440 " 60 

Total 251 Spruce 2,440 Fir 235 

= 2,675 M. feet. 

The distribution of the age classes (see age class table, Chap- 
ter I, Section 2) shows a considerable abnormality, as follows: 

Overmature Mature Young Restockable 

(160 + ) (81-160) (1-80) blanks. 

Actual acres 61 266 300 103 

Normal " . . 355 355 

Deficit " .. 89 55 

Surplus " 61 ... ... 103 

The rotation is 160 years; the total area 710 acres exclusive 
of natural blanks, and the protective belt of all-aged forest (see 
foot-note) . 

Despite the abnormality, the annual cutting area is here 
calculated for the sake of an example, e.g., by method No. 1, 

. . T , ^ A 710 

variation I, the annual cutting area = — = — - =4.43215 acres. 

For ten years = 44.3 125 acres. 

The cutting for the next ten years would, therefore, be con- 
fined entirely to compartment 9b. 

But if variation II were to be used (assuming the same 

* The all-aged selection forest of the protective belt is necessarily omitted 
since it obviously requires a different method of computing the yield. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



87 



values as in the example under method i, Variation II) the 
reduced area would be, reduced to terms of site I: 



104 


acres, 


Site I 


= 104 acres X 1 


00 = 104 


acres. 


96 


it 


" I/II 


= 96 ' 


' X 


92= 88 


a 


106 


tt 


" II 


= 106 ' 


1 X 


83= 88 


tt 


103 


tt 


" III 


= 103 


' X 


66= 68 


it 


100 


tt 


" III 


= 100 ' 


' X 


66= 66 


tt 


IOI 


it 


" II/III 


= 101 ' 


' X 


75= 76 


a 


IOO 


tt 


" II 


= 100 ' 


' X 


83= 83 


it 


710 

=> nnr 


n a 1 ri 


lttincr arpa 


reduce 


d area 


573 
_ 573 _ 


■} rS 



160 



for 



rotation 

ten years equals 35.8125 of Site I or equivalent. The 61 acres in 
9 b are Site II/III. It requires 1.35 acres of Site II/III to equal 
one acre of Site I. Hence 35.8125X1.35=48.35 acres of per- 
missible cutting area in 9 b during the next ten years. The 
volume can then be determined by multiplying the average stand 
per acre for the site determined from yield tables or from local 
measurement by the per cent of stocking and then by the reduced 
acreage (see example under Variation II, method No. 14). 

But where stands are so irregular in age classes, site quality, 
and density of stocking, it is not well to resort to area as the 
regulating factor, but rather some volume method, such as 
Heyer's, of comparison with the normal growing stock (method 
No. 9). 

This would give : 
i (increment) = 5,840 M. feet of spruce X (say) .007 =40,880 ft. b.m. 
970 M. feet of fir X .01= 9, 700 ft. b.m. 



Total, 50,580 feet. 



r =160 



ri 



nv = — =4,046,400 feet b. m. 

v = 6,810,000 feet b. m. 

v > nvby 2,763,600 feet b. m. 



88 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

Let x (the period of distribution) = - = — ■ = 40 years. 

Then by the formula : 

v + i . x — nv 6,810,000 + (50,580 X 40) — 4,046,400 
x 40 

119,670 feet board measure. 

The annual cut therefore equals 119,670 feet board measure. 

The cut for the decade equals 1,196,700 feet board measure. 

There is within compartments 9 b, 10, and part of 6 and 8 

ample (2,675 M. feet) for the cutting within the next decade. 

Compartments 6 and 8 need scarcely be touched, which is just 

as well, since they are barely mature now. If, however, in view 

of the proportionately large amount of mature and overmature 

timber it is desired to reduce the period of distributing the 

surplus to ten years, the result would be: 

6,810,000 + (50,580 X jo) — 4,046,400 
Icj — = 326,940. 

The annual cut therefore equals 326,940 feet board measure. 

The cut for the decade equals 3,269,400 feet board measure. 

There are within compartments 9, 10, 6, and 8 only 2,675,000 
feet, hence the management must either be conservative and 
content itself therewith or add compartment 4, with 945,000 
feet to the cutting areas for the decade, which would make 
3,620,000 feet board measure, or ample whereon to draw for 
the 3,269,400 feet board measure to be cut. 

(c) Value and Application. — This method is without doubt 
the most rational of all the methods of determining the yield; 
for it attempts no iron-clad rule or framework — such as the 
"period methods" next to be considered — but depends entirely 
on the silvicultural and economical requirements of the forest. 
By means of frequent revisions the amount cut can never 
endanger the continuity of the forest's productiveness, while it 
allows full play to the skill of the officer in charge of the manage- 
ment of the forest. The forest moves steadily toward a normal 
distribution of the age classes, but this very desirable goal is 
attained without undue sacrifices. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



89 



It is a method of great freedom and adaptability. Freedom 
in so far as the cutting of certain stands is not prescribed far in 
advance for a certain time, but entirely according to the exi- 
gencies of the situation. It is adaptable to all methods of high 
forest which result in even-aged or fairly even-aged stands, i.e., 
to all but the selection system. 

The method in its simple application is well suited to Amer- 
ican conditions where it is often of prime importance to dispose 
of the overmature and decadent timber within the reasonable 
check of a sustained volume yield aided by the corrections of 
decennial redetermination of the yield and striving toward the 
distant goal of a normal age-class distribution. 

17. BY AREA AND VOLUME.— BASED ON PERIODS (" FACH- 
WERKSMETHODEN " *). 

(a) Description of Method.— The rotation is divided into a 
number of equally long periods of time. Usually these periods 
comprise twenty years. Every stand or subcompartment is 
assigned to a period corresponding with its age, so that each 
part of the entire area of the working figure, with the exception 
of certain areas reserved for selection forest, protective belt, or 
other special purpose, is used once during the rotation. 

The sums of the individual periods must be approximately 
equal, or somewhat higher for the later periods. If this is not 
the case, adjustment is necessary, by transferring certain stands 
or subcompartments to an adjacent period. According as this 
adjustment emphasizes equality of area, or equality of volume, 
or equality in both, different kinds of period methods are recog- 
nized as: I. Area-period method (" Flachenfachwerk ") ; II. 
Volume-period method (" Massenf achwerk ") ; III. Area-and- 
volume-period method (" Kombiniertes Fachwerk"). 

I. In the area-period method ("Flachenfachwerk") the areas 
are assigned to various periods either as actual areas or as 

*The name " Fachwerksmethoden " comes from the German "Facher" 
or pigeon-holes into which the various parts of the forest are placed by these 
methods. A "Facherwerk" or "Fachwerk" is, therefore, a framework con- 
sisting of many pigeon-holes, and these methods are "Framework" methods. 



90 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



reduced areas (see method No. i above) of equal productivity. 
The method aims to cut each year, or each period, an equally 
productive area containing an approximately equal volume. 
The age-class table is the basis of the assignment to periods, 
however these must then be shifted to secure equality of utiliza- 
tion in each period. Knowing the area to be cut in the first 
(immediate) period and (from yield tables or empirical measure- 
ments) the volume yield thereof, the annual cut is found by 
dividing this volume by the number of years in the period. 
This volume calculation is usually confined to the first period. 
Final cuttings are restricted to this period. 

1 20 
In a rotation of 1 20 years there are, e.g., = 6 periods. Were 

the age-class distribution normal, the periods and the age limits 
of the stands comprised therein would be as follows: 

I Period Age of Stands 100-120 years 



II 
III 
IV 

V 
VI 



80-100 

60- 80 

40- 60 

20- 40 

o- 20 



In practice this method is restricted to simple, regular con- 
ditions with artificial regeneration after clear cutting. 

The area "framework" has the advantage of simplicity and 
ease of application. Within the rotation, if no unforeseen disturb- 
ances occur, the normal age-class distribution is attained. But 
the method has the great disadvantage that no due regard is 
paid to existing conditions (age-class distribution, growing stock, 
increment). In the case of an overmature, broken stand more 
should be cut than a strict period method permits; in the case 
of immature stands, less should be cut than this period method 
provides. Equality of periods is secured, often, only at a tre- 
mendous sacrifice. 

II. In the volume-period method (" Massenf achwerk ") the 
aim is to have an equal yield in each period. The various periods 
are, therefore, given approximately equal volumes, although the 
younger periods are sometimes endowed with slightly higher 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 91 

volumes ("Massen") than the older periods. The annual cut 
is found by dividing the volume of the first period by the number 
of years therein (usually twenty). 

The individual stands (compartments and subcompartments 
are not requisite in this method, nor even the formation of work- 
ing circles) are assigned to the periods corresponding to their 
age. Their volume is then prorated by means of yield tables or, 
at least, increment tables so as to determine the volume they 
will have at the time of reaching the middle of the I period 
{i.e., the cutting period). These volumes are then compared 
and the necessary adjustments made; the stands are shifted 
from one period to another, e.g., if the II period were deficient, 
the IV period excessive, some stands would have to be shifted 
from the IV into the III period, and from this into the II period, 
until the proper balance was secured. Since this "shifting" 
carries with it a recalculation of the final yield because of changed 
increment, the method involves an enormous amount of cal- 
culation. 

This method was founded by G. L. Hartig in 1795. It finds 
no application in practice to-day. 

It has the advantage over the area "framework" of cutting 
an equal volume each year, and hence more nearly approaches the 
desires and needs of timber owner and timber buyer. But it has 
the glaring disadvantage of attempting to regulate the cut for a 
whole rotation. The future treatment of stands must depend on 
eventualities which cannot be foreseen in the present. Nor 
can the method be used in the extensive, irregular conditions for 
which it is intended because of the lack of adequate volume and 
increment data. Furthermore, an equal annual cut may dis- 
regard overmature stands in need (financial and silvicultural) 
of cutting, or, conversely, cut stands which are not yet mature. 
It is an unnecessarily narrow concept of sustained yield; it does 
not even secure normality, for (Chapter I, Section 1) volume, 
i.e., growing stock, alone is no criterion of nonnality. 

III. The area-and- volume period method (" Kombinierte 
Fachwerk") aims to combine the area "framework" and the 



92 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

volume "framework" so that each period will contain approx- 
imately equal areas and volumes. 

Theoretically this distribution of volumes is for the whole 
rotation and is achieved for the I period by means of valuation 
surveys, for the other periods by means of yield tables. Areas 
and volumes are then adjusted as in the area "framework" 
and the volume "framework." The annual cut is then obtained 
by dividing the area and the volume of the I period by the 
number of years contained therein (usually twenty) and 
letting the two factors of area and volume act as a mutual 
check.* 

In practice the difficulty of predicting volumes for a whole 
rotation and of equalizing volumes and areas, led to an im- 
portant modification whereby the volumes are calculated for 
only the I period or > at most, the I and II periods; the areas, 
however, delineated, roughly, for the whole rotation so as to 
insure a sustained yield. 

This method was founded by Heinrich Cotta in 1804. The 
important modification of restricting the volumes to the I or 
I and II periods dates from von Klipstein in 1823 and von Grebe 
in 1867. With this modification the method is to-day used in 
Prussia, Hesse, Wurttemberg, and in Austria (see Part Two, 
Chapter I). 

This method possesses the combined advantages of the area 
and the volume "framework"; it secures a greater regularity 
of volume yield than does the former and a quicker approach 
toward normality than does the latter. Combined with a proper 
distribution of the age classes and a liberal interpretation of 
equality in the periods, the method secures good results. But 
with too strict construction it results in crass errors, such as 
the needless leaving of overmature stands simply because they 

* A number of variations have been suggested, e.g., annual cut = volume of 
period -J- years of period (Prussian practice); annual cut = area of period -4- 
years of period (Auhagen); annual cut = area of (I or I and II) periods -f- 
years and reduced to volume (von Stockhausen and von Grebe). In practice 
both factors are regarded ocal conditions demand. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 93 

are in the sacrosanct II period and can't be touched,* or the 
cutting of immature stands which were placed in the I period 
merely to "fill in." 

(b) Example. — Since, from what has gone before and what 
follows (c) these methods are so obviously unsuited to American 
conditions, it would serve no useful purpose to elaborate them by 
examples.f 

(c) Value and Application. — In most of the German States 
the "framework" methods were the foundation of regulated 
management and thus exerted a mighty influence on German 
forestry. But under the conditions of modern times they 
have steadily diminished in importance for the following 
reasons : 

(i) The silvicultural method of management, to which the 
method of regulating the yield must conform, is often in direct 
disagreement with the "framework" method. The latter 
demands that the cutting on a given parcel (e.g., compartment) 
be completed within the period (twenty years). This is often 
impossible without silvicultural mistakes and economic sacri- 
fices. The natural regeneration of many species requires more 
than an arbitrary period of, say, twenty years. Even with 
artificial reproduction there are often unavoidable and unfore- 
seeable events which make complete regeneration impossible 
within the period. 

(2) The concept of sustained yield which endows each period 
with an equal area or volume, or both, is unnecessarily narrow. 
For practical purposes it suffices that the area or volume, or 
both, of the next working period be in reasonable ratio to the 
total area or volume, or both, of the entire working circle. 
Modern economic conditions have greatly changed the concept 
of sustained yield (see Chapter I, Section 3). Present economic 
conditions often demand the cutting of other than the exact 

* This has led to the growing demand for the "Opening of the II Period." 
t These may be found in Judeich's or Martin's "Forsteinrichtung" (see 

Bibliography) or in Lorey's "Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft," 2d ed., 

Vol. III., pp. 411, 415, and 423. 



94 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

period area; the zone of economic influence has extended 
tremendously. 

(3) Cutting series (see Section 2 of present chapter) are not 
dependent on a period method; indeed the latter often resulted 
in cutting series of excessive length. 

(4) The assignment of every compartment or other parcel 
of the forest to a certain period presumes a certainty of judgment 
on the part of the Forest Organizer amounting to prescience. 
As a result the cumbersome calculations are often valueless. 

(5) These calculations of yield for the whole rotation in 
advance are the more unnecessary since, under proper admin- 
istration, there are frequent revisions of the working plan at 
regular intervals. 

Taking all these together, it is a just criticism of the "frame- 
work" methods to say that they are too hide-bound, adapted 
only to even-aged stands, to intensive conditions, and to methods 
of clear cutting with artificial regeneration. The realization of 
this has brought about a revulsion away from these methods. 
Most of the German States have definitely abandoned the 
rt framework"; in others it still persists, but without any weight 
©n the determination of yield for future periods (see Part Two, 
Chapter I). 

Review of the Methods of Determining the Yield 

No single one of the methods described above will be adapted 
to all varieties of conditions. The choice of method depends: 
1, on the intensity of management possible; 2, the kind of forest, 
arid 3, the silvicultural system adopted. In the light of these 
considerations, the methods may be valued as follows: 

Method No. 1 is chiefly adapted to coppice and coppice with 
standards. 

Methods Nos. 2 and 3 for provisional determination of the 
yield under rough conditions, and as a check on other methods. 

Method No. 4 as a check on other methods. 

Methods Nos. 5-9 (" formula methods ") : Of these all but 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 95 

No. 9 are restricted to rough calculations in irregular stands and 
as checks on other methods. No. 9 (Heyer's formula) finds a 
wide application in uneven-aged, virgin stands when supple- 
mented with a careful cutting plan. 

Method No. 10 is adapted to high diameter limits and long 
rotations. 

Method No. n is adapted to mixed tropical forests where 
only one or two of the many species are merchantable. 

Method No. 12 is excellently suited for irregular and over- 
mature selection forests. 

Method No. 13 is restricted to very crude conditions. 

Method No. 14, variations I and III, for coppice and coppice 
with standards. 

Method No. 15, for even-aged stands of only moderate 
regularity. 

Method No. 16, the ultima ratio of fairly regular, even- 
aged stands. 

Method No. 17, not adapted to American conditions. 

It is always advisable to calculate the annual yield by a 
variety of methods so as to have a check on the figures. 

It will often be the case that a crude working figure will 
contain both even-aged and uneven-aged stands. The yierd 
must then be calculated separately for each and, when the plan 
is revised, the time may be ripe to make each of the two kinds 
of forest into a distinct working figure. 

For the determination of yield the process should be as 
follows: First determine the allowed annual cut, in volume or 
in area, by means of one or several of the methods described. 

Then choose the cutting areas according to silvicultural and 
economic necessities. To do this requires a careful cutting plan 
— or plan of distribution of the yield — which is next to be con- 
sidered. 



96 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

SECTION TWO 

DISTRIBUTION OF YIELD 

To make the actual annual cut conform directly to the 
determined yield, i.e., to cut yearly the exact amount specified 
in the working plan, is neither possible nor desirable. Unfore- 
seen contingencies, both silviculturrl and economic, often 
necessitate an overcut one year, ai undercut the following. 
If the working plan must be flexible ^ven under European con- 
ditions which allow the forester to decide the "where" and 
"when" of cutting, how much more is it necessary in America, 
where the "where" depends on profitable accessibility and the 
"when" on market conditions. 

It therefore suffices entirely to keep within the allowed cut 
for the working period of ten or twenty years — the time before 
the next revision of the working plan — and to make no attempt 
to cut one-tenth or one-twentieth thereof each year. In other 
words: a periodic sustained yield rather than an annual sus- 
tained yield should be the aim. 

For similar reasons, a great flexibility must be allowed in the 
selection of the actual cutting areas. The working plan properly 
lists certain areas to be cut within the working period of ten or 
twenty years — the time before the next revision of the 
working plan — but these cannot be rigidly adhered to, cannot 
in Europe, and much less so in America. European experience 
has brought about a great liberality in this regard — the executive 
officer in charge of the forest is given freedom of choice as to 
what areas he wishes to cut each year of the working period,* 
this yearly cutting plan is viseed and approved by his superior 
officers, otherwise he has carte blanche to exercise his judgment. 
No other course is possible in America, where conditions are far 

* With due regard, of course, to supplying local needs for timber and to a 
proper distribution of classes of timber so as to keep values from fluctuating 
and to provide industries dependent on the forests with the timber they need. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 97 

more extensive. The working plan designates certain areas, 
certain cutting series even; beyond this it cannot go. It must 
help and not hamper the managing officer. It is merely a frame 
within which he exercises his individual ingenuity. 

Selection of Stands to be Cut 

The conditions which govern the selection of stands to be 
cut are: market, maturity, damage (insects, fungi, etc.), wind- 
fall, fire, and the like. 

Under market are contained all the manifold considerations 
of logging accessibility, of profit in cutting and marketing, and 
the sizes and species which can be logged. For example, a spruce 
stand on top of an isolated mountain like Mt. Graham in Arizona 
may be fully mature and in need of cutting, but unless there are 
adequate logging devices which can market the timber at a 
reasonable profit, it is useless to designate this as the sole cutting 
area of the next working period. Similarly, there may be large 
amounts of fir (abies) in mixture with other species such as 
spruce and Douglas fir, but unless the fir is accepted as lumber 
and as ties it cannot be counted on the same basis with the 
other species. Finally, where material below a certain diameter 
cannot be marketed at a profit it should not be considered a part 
of the cut of the next working period. In other words, the 
cutting plan must deal first with actualities confronting the 
administrative officer and put hypothetical utilization in a 
subordinate place. 

Other things being equal, the cutting plan provides for the 
logging of all mature and overmature stands, i.e., such as have 
attained or passed the rotation age. If the forest is even-aged 
or fairly so, these stands are those of the highest age class or 
classes. 

Stands which show damage by insects, fungi, etc., should 
usually be cut; they are therefore included in the cutting plan 
for the next working period. 

Stands which have suffered severe windfall must often be 



98 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

cut speedily so as to prevent further damage.* But, further 
than this, the lessons of past windfall must be applied in dis- 
tributing the yield — e.g., to remove a certain stand may expose 
the one behind it and subject it to almost certain windfall. 
This can best be regulated by the formation of cutting series, 
described below. The windfall danger varies, of course, with 
species and character of stand, with soil and site, and with the 
prevailing wind direction. Spruce is exceedingly subject to 
windfall and often requires especial precautions. 

Stands damaged by fire enough to necessitate regeneration, 
but not enough to be rendered unmerchantable, must be dis- 
posed of speedily before further deterioration. 

Mapping op Stands to be Cut 

The type and stand map of the forest is of the greatest value 
in deciding on the areas to be included in the cutting plan for 
the working period, especially when supplemented by complete 
and reliable forest descriptions of each unit. Referring to the 
map given above under Chapter I, Section 2, "Maps and Tables," 
and presuming that it is possible to log and market where, when, 
and what one wishes, but that the windfall danger is great, 
making many "points of attack" preferable to extensive, con- 
secutive cutting areas, the following stands would be chosen: 

4a, 7e, and 8a can be cut without in the least endangering 
any other stands. 

6e, however, though it is sixty-five years old, cannot be cut 
before the larger, but only sixty-year-old 6a, because this would 
immediately subject 6a to heavy windfalls. Hence 6e must 
wait until 6a is cut. This involves a balancing of whether it is 
the more desirable to cut 6a and 6e now or to wait until 6a is 
fully mature. Other things being equal, 6e must wait, since it is 
the smaller. 

The stands or blocks in which it is intended to cut during 

* In the spruce stands of the Black Forest, Germany, it is not uncommon 
to have the entire annual cut taken up by unexpected windfalls. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 99 

the coming working period should be indicated on the working 
map either by color, or shading, or symbol. The kind of cutting 
intended, e.g., shelterwood, can also be indicated by using the 
symbols given in the "General Stand Table," Chapter I, Sec- 
tion 2, above. 

Cutting Series 

When one cutting area is purposely joined to another and this 
to a third, etc., they form a cutting series. Cutting series always 
progress from some initial "point of attack" against the pre- 
vailing wind direction. They are shown on the map by arrows. 
The formation of cutting series is a tremendous safeguard 
against windfall, especially where at the point of attack a forest 
mantle has formed on the edge of the stand to leeward. This 
mantle consists of the persisting middle and lower branches of 
the trees on the edge of the stand. It is artificially stimulated 
during the youth of the stand by the cutting through of com- 
partment lines or "Schneisen" (see Chapter I, Section 2, "Boun- 
daries of Divisions"), or forms naturally along a road, stream, 
or other topographic interruption. It can also be created by 
heavy thinning along the edge of a stand or compartment 
whereby the crowns remain deep and hence the trees windfirm. 

Cutting series can seldom be arranged without some minor 
sacrifices. For example, in the map the small, forty-eight-year 
old stand 7d lies in the midst of the nearly merchantable seventy- 
two-year old stand 7e: 7d would be sacrificed to the cutting 
series, the lesser good to the greater. Only if the borders of 7d 
were liberated so as to form a mantle, could it be left after 7e 
has been cut. This would be done in the case of 7g, since it is a 
much younger stand. 

Cutting series must be decided upon by the Forest Organizer 
during the progress of the field work in order to gauge the sac- 
rifices properly. They can be provisionally entered on the 
working map by using dotted arrows. 

Theoretically the cutting series are like steps, actually they 



100 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

are always somewhat irregular even under favorable conditions. 
In the map, 5d and h, and 5e, f, g, and i obviously belong to 
two cutting series. But 5I is a separate proposition because it 
must be cut before 5I1 since it is more than twice as old (5h = 
23 years, 51 = 52 years). 

Cutting series must be planned decades in advance, and 
require careful thought and accurate judgment. The cutting 
of such a series may require many years; early mistakes are 
difficult to correct. 

Cutting series are necessary only in even-aged stands of 
shallow-rooted species, but there they are of tremendous im- 
portance.* Their regular adoption in America is still of the 
future, but the principle can be utilized now. 

Plan of Cutting 

Having determined "how much" and "where" to cut during 
the ensuing working period, this is reduced to a documentary 
plan of cutting or "felling budget." 

Two kinds of cutting plans should usually be drawn up: 
I, a general one for the entire working period — i.e., for the num- 
ber of years to elapse before the next revision of the working 
plan, generally ten years; and II, a specific plan for the ensuing 
year. 

I. The general cutting plan provides cutting areas sufficient 
to yield (if the working period is ten years) at least ten times 
the volume of the allowed annual cut or ten times the area, 
as the case may be. It should, however, provide for some- 
what more, so as to provide additional cutting areas in case of 
unforeseen contingencies making the cutting of certain areas 
impractical or allowing a higher cut than was originally intended. 
Under fairly regular conditions the cutting plan may cover the 
next twenty years, or even forty years, but under average Amer- 

* By this means windfall is checked and controlled in the spruce forests 
of Saxony; the lack of cutting series is largely accountable for the tremendous 
•windfall in the spruce stands of the Black Forest in Baden. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



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102 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

ican conditions this is little better than a useless play. Nor, 
under most American conditions, is it necessary or advisable 
to prorate the increment to the middle of the cutting period. 
Such corrections had best be left to frequent revisions of the 
working plan at regular intervals. 

The general cutting plan should take the form* on preced- 
ing page: 

II. The specific cutting plan for the ensuing year, calendar 
or fiscal, is drawn up by the administrative officer in charge of 
the forest and submitted by him to his superior officers (if he 
has any) for approval. Thus it is really a part of administration 
and not of forest organization, yet it is closely linked thereto. 
The administrator, through his intimate knowledge of the forest 
and of the exact status of local conditions of logging, market, 
etc., selects from out the general cutting plan those areas which 
in his judgment should be cut during the ensuing year. On 
large forests he usually consults each ranger on the subject.f 
A convenient form for the annual cutting plan is as follows. 
This can be printed or otherwise manifolded and serve as a 
permanent record. (See next page.) 

In the following table, column 4 contains the estimated volume 
to be cut during the year. If instead of compartment 10, com- 
partment 9b had been chosen, with its 540 M. of spruce, the 
value in column 4 would have been set as directly equal the 
allowed annual cut, or 120 M. Column 5 is always the volume 
actually cut. Column 6 is merely for convenience in checking 
the results of estimates as a guide to their accuracy. When 
column 4 contains only part of a compartment, column 6 must 
be deferred until the entire compartment has been cut over. 

Where conditions are sufficiently intensive the table may 
include areas as well as volumes. 

* The' figures are taken from the General Stand Table, Chapter I, Sec- 
tion 2, above. 

fin Prussia the Oberforster (supervisor) calls on each Forster (ranger) 
for an annual cutting plan for his district. These he then combines for the 
whole forest. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



103 



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104 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

Descriptions and further explanations can always be added 
if advisable for clearness. 

It is obvious that the cutting plan proper consists only of 
columns i, 2, 3, and 4 and the comparison of column 4 with the 
allowed annual cut. But for purposes of convenience columns 
5 and 6 are added, thus making the record complete, though 
they cannot be rilled until after the cutting is finished. Based 
on this record, the cutting plan for 19 13 is computed. Having 
saved 20 M. in 1912, the administrator would not hesitate to 
cut 120+20 = 140 M. in 1913. Indeed, considerable leeway is 
customary in this respect, so as not to tie the administrator's 
hands.* 

At the end of the decade, if that is the working period, the 
annual cutting plan sheets are added up and the results com- 
pared with the general cutting plan; they then serve as most 
valuable data for the revision of the working plan (see Chapter III 
below). 



SECTION THREE 

REGULATION OF YIELD IN SPECIAL CASES 

This section considers the methods of regulating the yield 
in special cases, such as, I abnormal forests, II transition forests, 
III wood-lots, and IV turpentine forests. Much of what has gone 
before will apply directly; it is only necessary here to note the 
exceptions and departures. 

I. Regulation of Abnormal Forests 

Strictly speaking all forests are abnormal which do not 
have a normal growing stock, a normal increment, and a normal 
distribution of the age classes (Chapter I, Section 1). But in 

* In Prussia the Oberforster (supervisor) may exceed the allowed cut by 
10 per cent without first seeking permission from his superiors. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 105 

current usage the term "abnormal" is restricted to those forests 
which show striking irregularities — e.g., a very sparse, patchy- 
stocking, or a marked excess of a single age class. In the latter 
case it is sometimes possible, if the entire stand is mature or past 
maturity, to cut it all off at once, invest the resulting capital, 
and let the interest thereon take the place of the sustained 
timber yield. 

But ordinarily the timber owner needs timber rather than 
money wherewith to supply his saw-mills, pulp-mills, etc. In 
the case of the government it is obviously the correct political 
economy to be able to supply without undue interruption the 
necessary raw material to the timber-using industries dependent 
on the national or State 'forests. Furthermore, it is usually to 
the interest of the private owner to lumber conservatively and 
to plan for a second cut rather than to slash and abandon. By 
so doing he may, under average conditions, reasonably expect 
a five or six per cent return upon his investment and, if the 
shortage of lumber becomes as great as is freely predicted, 
stumpage values will increase prodigiously and profits pro- 
portionately. 

Assuming, therefore, that the abnormal forest of a single age 
class is not to be exploited, but to be managed with a liberal 
construction of sustained yield, the regulation is as follows: 

Y 

If the age is less than — only thinnings are possible. 

If the age is more than — -cutting is permissible, usually less 

than the allowed annual cut up to the age of $ir, usually more 
than the allowed annual cut beyond the age of %r. 

The object is to replace the excess of slow-growing mature 
and overmature stands by young, thrifty stands of rapid incre- 
ment. This reduction of excess growing stock must never be 
brought about at the expense of glutting the timber market 
and forcing down prices. In America the silvicultural needs 
must, for the present at least, be subordinate to the economic 
demands. "In spite of the loss from deterioration, the country 



106 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

as a whole may be benefited more by reserving a considerable 
portion of these stands against the time of critical need than by 
cutting them off too rapidly, under present market conditions, 
in order to put the growing power of the soil to work." * 

II. Regulation op Transition Forests 

Forests in transition from high forest to coppice or, which 
is more frequently the case, from coppice to high forest, or from 
crude selection to even-aged forests, require special regulation. 

The transition from coppice to high forest involves the 
replacing of sprouts by seedlings. The process of conversion is, 
briefly, as follows : Instead of cutting the coppice at the thirtieth 
year or thereabouts, as is usually done, it is allowed to grow 
until the sixtieth year or thereabouts. If the coppice does not 
already contain sufficient seedling trees in mixture, these must 
be supplied artificially. During the last decades, it is necessary 
to free the crowns of the seed-bearing standards from the en- 
croaching coppice. This is done by means of preparatory cuts 
at intervals of about ten years. 

When the coppice is about sixty years old, the regeneration 
cutting begins. This aims to open up the stand by cutting 
most of the coppice, allowing the seed from the standards to 
regenerate the area. The regeneration cutting is repeated four 
or five times at intervals of about five years, and gradually 
changes from cuts to seed up the area (or plant, if artificially) 
to cuts giving light to seedlings obtained, and at last to final 
removal cuttings. The last two cuts (light giving and final 
removal) operate not only in the coppice, but also in the seed- 
bearing standards which may be present (coppice with stand- 
ards) . 

The period of transition is thus thirty years' additional 
coppice plus twenty years of regeneration cutting if the coppice 

* W. B. Greeley in " National Forest Sales on the Pacific Coast," " Pro- 
ceedings of the Society of American Foresters," Vol. VII., No. I, p. 46. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 107 

contains standards; otherwise extensive planting is necessary. 
The transition from coppice with standards to high forest is 
cheaper and easier than is the transition from straight coppice. 
Fifty years is the usual transition period, or about one-fourth 
to one-third the high-forest rotation. Even by planting the 
seedlings the time can only be shortened by greatly heightened 
annual expense unless the area to be transformed is small. 
There is also the danger of creating large areas of even-aged 
stands if too much is planted each year. 

The forest regulation consists of a general cutting plan 
(Section 2, this chapter) for the whole period of transition. This 
cutting plan designates for each of the stages of transformation 
the approximate amount to be cut and how the cut is to be 
conducted. Where the seedlings have to be introduced arti- 
ficially, this must be supplemented by a careful planting plan 
(Chapter III), showing species, kind of stock, spacing, etc., and 
the amounts and areas to be planted in each stage of the trans- 
formation. 

It is obvious that the sustained yield suffers temporarily 
because of the cessation of coppice yields and the delay in 
securing high-forest yields. To minimize this delay it is often 
advisable to plant species of fairly rapid growth and hence low 
rotation age, such as chestnut, ash, pine, European larch, etc. 

The transition from selection (all-aged) forest to even-aged 
forest is comparatively simple, but requires one or two rotations. 
The object is secured by a change in the silvicultural system 
employed, and can be brought about in a variety of ways. 

The quickest and most useful is by means of shelterwood- 
selection cuttings (see Chapter I, Section 3), whereby the period 
of regeneration is reduced from the entire rotation to 30 to 50 
years. With the next rotation the method can still further 
approach the shelterwood system, if conditions are favorable, 
and the period of regeneration reduced to from 10 to 15 years, 
resulting in virtually even-aged stands. 

Where the selection forest is already very group-wise (even- 
aged in groups), the transition can take advantage of this by 



108 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

employing the shelterwood-group system (see Chapter I, Sec- 
tion 3). 

The forest regulation consists in modifying the general 
cutting plan to meet the changed conditions — i.e., a high cut 
during the regeneration period followed by a cessation of cutting 
until the young growth is merchantable, instead of the more 
frequently recurring cutting cycles of the selection forest. The 
general cutting plan is also extended so as to cover the entire 
period of regeneration (30 to 50 years) instead of merely a 
decade or so. 

III. Regulation of Wood-lots 

Wood-lots are seldom managed by a technically trained 
forester, hence the prescribed regulation must be so simple, clear, 
and direct that any layman can carry it out. The owner of the 
wood-lot is interested chiefly in having a sustained yield. This 
feature should, therefore, be emphasized by determining the 
allowed annual and periodic cut as exactly as possible by area 
or volume, or both. This should be incorporated in a detailed 
general cutting plan and the cutting areas for the next working 
period indicated on a map of the wood-lot. 

Where frequent revisions are possible, the prescriptions can 
be confined to the next decade or so, but where frequent revisions 
are out of the question the progress of management should be 
sketched for the whole rotation as a guide to the owner. 

The regulation of yield in wood-lots must conform primarily 
to the wishes and desires of the owner, but it can usually accom- 
plish these without the waste incident to haphazard manage- 
ment, and hence it is of the greatest value to draw up simple 
working plans even for small wood-lots. The realization of this 
has led to compulsory working plans for private tracts, large 
and small, in several of the European States, notably Prussia. 

IV. Regulation of Turpentine Forests 

The imminent dearth of timber available for naval stores 
emphasizes the urgent necessity of abandoning wasteful, destruc- 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 109 

tive methods of turpentining in favor of a more conservative 
utilization and a regulated yield. 

The field data necessary for the regulation of the turpentine 
yield are, besides a thorough acquaintance with the general and 
local turpentine business: 

(i) The distribution of the diameter classes on each manage- 
ment or survey unit.* This need not be by inch classes, but 
according to the cupping limits, explained below. Strip valua- 
tion surveys, two chains wide, are excellent for this purpose. 

(2) The local turpentining quality of each stand, gauged by 
the number of cups per acre. 

(3) The amount and character of young growth below the 
minimum turpentining diameter for each management or survey 
unit, supplemented by detailed figures from sample areas more 
carefully measured, i.e., calipered instead of estimated ocularly. 

(4) The board measure contents of stands. The cord-wood 
contents of undergrowth, etc. 

(5) The silvical characteristics — maturity, height, thrift- 
iness, etc. 

(6) Diameter increment tables showing time required to 
grow from one-inch class to the next. 

For conservative turpentining, the use of a system of cupping 
is basic. Scarcely less so is the cupping to a diameter limit — 
e.g., no cups on trees below eleven inches in diameter, and never 
more than three cups on any tree. Furthermore, in order to 
prolong the productivity of the tree and minimize the injury, the 
chipping must be shallow and light. 

A definite rotation must be adopted for the working of the 
cropsf — e.g., by shallow and light chipping the first faces can be 
chipped for three years, when the faces will be about 45 to 50 inch- 
es in height, the cups being moved up each year. Then the faces 
are worked with a "puller," a chipping tool with a long handle, for 
another three years, which makes the faces from seven to eight feet 

* E.g., blocks, compartments, subcompartments, or townships, sections, 
quarter-sections, etc. 

f A "crop" is commonly considered as containing 10,000 cup 1 * 



110 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

high. The tree is then allowed to recuperate for three years, when 
"back cups" are placed between the old faces and worked for 
three years. The final period of three years' working is secured 
from the high-face back cups. Thus each tree is worked for 
twelve years, extending over a period of fifteen. When the 
trees have been completely worked, they are cut for saw-timber, 
ties, or other material.* Certain of them are left as seed trees 
(Chapter I, Section 3), if that form of regeneration is sought, 
or else the seeding is from the side by the strip system (Chapter 
I, Section 3). In case of artificial regeneration, the worked and 
logged area is resown or replanted. When the young growth has 
reached sufficient size, the larger trees are turpentined, and 
thus the cycle is completed. 

The following illustration is taken from management of the 
Choctawhatchee Division of the Florida National Forest : 

Cupping to a diameter limit: No cups on trees ten inches or 
less in diameter (outside the bark at 2%. feet above the groundf) : 

1 cup on trees 11-15 inches inclusive. 

2 cups " " 16-20 " 

3 cups " "21 " and over. 
Not more than three cups on any tree. 

The width of the face varies from 9 to 14 inches, according 
to the size of the tree, hence room is always left for the future 
back cups, especially since the "bars" between the faces are at 
least 4 inches wide. However, to get 10,000 back cups nearly 
twice the area must be used as for virgin cups, because none 
of the three-cup trees, and but very few of the two-cup trees, 
can be back cupped, and never more than one back cup can be 
placed on a cupped tree. 

Working of Crops in Rotation. — Under the system outlined, 
an average stand of one acre on which cupping was begun in 

* The turpentined trees of France are highly prized in England as mine 
timbers. 

t If measured at breast high (4^ ft.) the diameter classes must be reduced, 
say, one inch; e.g., the two-cup class becomes from 15-19 inches inclusive. 
The exact taper is found by means of local measurements. 



1913-1915 


3 


1916-1918 " 


3 


I9i9 -I 9 21 


3 


1922-1924 " 


3 


Total, 





THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 111 

1 9 10 with a yield of twenty virgin cups will have, according 
to the present plans of management, the following turpentining 
history : 

1910-1912 inclusive, 3 years, 20 virgin cups 

20 high-face cups 
resting period 
10 back cups 
10 high-face back cups 
60 cups 

Method of Regulating Yield. — This method of working the 
crops in rotation has been applied to the whole Choctawhatchee 
Division. Under the unfavorable conditions of slow growth and 
small timber, it appears necessary to wait 100 }'ears before 
obtaining a second cupping equal to the first. On this basis 
about six and two- thirds new crops (66,000 cups) can be worked 
each year for the next 100 years with a probable increase of from 
ten to fifteen crops annually thereafter. This does not mean 
six and two-thirds virgin cups each year, but includes the high- 
face, back cups, and high-face back cups, since, according to the 
estimates, there are on the whole Division: 

220 crops of virgin cups 

220 " high-face cups 

no " back cups 

no " high-face back cups 



Total, 660 crops, or 6,600,000 cups 

However, in order to reduce the forest to normal and to fully 
utilize merchantable timber, the annual permits for the decade 
1910 to 1920 have not been restricted to six and two-thirds new 
crops. The following diagram (Fig. 2) shows the number of 
crops (10,000 cups each) operative annually for the period 1910 
to 1920. "First permit" means virgin cups, "second" means 
high-face cups, "third" means back cups, and "fourth" means 
high-face back cups. 

At the end of the ten years the Choctawhatchee Division 
will practically be producing normally and should continue to 
do so during the remainder of the hundred-year cycle which must 
elapse before a second cupping is possible. 



112 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



It should be remembered, in this connection, that any regula- 
tion by number of cups must be approximate, since the area 
required for a crop of cups is so variable. Therefore, it is the 



2 

a 

New 
Crops 



5.5- 



8.5-| 
14.0- 
8.0- 
6.0- 
6.0 
8.0-1 
14.0 

12.0- 

Total 82.0 

Normal 22.0 
Surplus 
removed w - u 



First Permit Second 



5.5 Crops 



S.5 



5.5 



Second 



8.0 



y,— • 



8.5 



Second 



14.0 
Second 



st 



S.O 
Second 



6.0 



S.O 



First 



Fourth 



Second 



14.0 

I 
Firs 



4.25*-^ 
Third 



.0 
Third 



* — 



G.O 
Second 



8.0 

. Second 



12.0 



14 



Fig. 2. 



2.7! 
Fourth 



4.25 



?ourth 



4.0 
Third 



7.0 

, Ftourth 



3.0 
Rest 



Second 



12,0 






4.0 
Fourth 



3.0 



3.0 

, Third 



r 



*- 



-* 



4.0 
Third 



3.0 
Fourth 



4.0 

, Four 



.0 
Third 



6.0 



7.C 
Fourth 



6.0 



Total 
Yield 
Crops 
16.5 



25.5 

42.0 
-24.0 

18.0 
-18.0 
-24.0 
-42.G 

36.0 



TOTAL 246.0 

NORMAL 66.0 

SURPLUS REMOVED 180.0 



LEGEND 
—Period of Working 



■—Period of Resting 



practice of the government to place on the market each year a 
certain area (by legal subdivisions) which the estimates show 
to contain approximately the scheduled number of cups. 



CHAPTER III 

THE WORKING-PLAN DOCUMENT 

SECTION ONE 

CONTENTS AND FORM 

The working-plan document is the vehicle for recording 
the salient features of a forest bearing on its organization and 
the detailed prescriptions of that organization for the next 
working period. Simplicity and brevity are the key-notes. The 
descriptive portion is usually confined to such short statements 
as suffice to bring to the trained forester's eye the picture of the 
forest as it is in its essentials, but, occasionally, a more detailed 
description is warranted so as to make the plan comprehensible 
to a layman, e.g., where the plan is to be executed by a layman- 
owner (see previous chapter, Section 3, "Wood-lots"). 

In the interests of clearness and brevity data should be 
tabulated wherever possible, e.g., estimates, stand tables, age- 
class tables, etc. Maps, also, are a powerful aid in graphic 
presentation of the data. 

The working-plan document may be confined to the silvi- 

cultural management, or it may cover all the activities of a 

forest such as general administration, grazing management, 

permanent improvements, forest protection, and use of forest 

land (see Introduction); in other words, be a complete forest 

plan. The desirability of including these sundry subjects 

depends on their importance and the purpose of the plan. 

National forests usually require complete plans (see Part Two, 

Section 2). Where other subjects than that of silvicultural 

management are to be included, the descriptive data preceding 

the plan proper must be amplified accordingly (see Typical 

Outline for America, next section). 
8 113 



114 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

The essential contents of a working plan confined to silvi- 
cultural management are (i) Orientation, i.e., location, size, 
history of forest with important changes, salient physiographic, 
social, and industrial features, time, method, and personnel of 
reconnaissance and work of organization, period for which made 
(working period), digest of working-plan conference, if had; 
(2) Foundation, i.e., growing stock (estimates) and increment, 
and (if even-aged) distribution of the age classes, general stand 
table, maps, forest description, division of area; (3) Recom- 
mendation: methods of management, past, present, and pro- 
posed, i.e., governing conditions, object of management, silvi- 
cultural system, rotation, etc.; (4) Regulation, i.e., yield 
determination and distribution, general and annual cut- 
ting plan, corresponding general and annual planting plans 
(Section 3). 

These essentials may be presented in various forms, some 
of which are given in the following section, varying with the 
needs and desires of the administrative officers. The form of 
the working-plan document is comparatively unimportant. 
It may be typewritten or not, bound or unbound. If type- 
written it can be manifolded more easily; if plainly bound it 
resists handling better, and the working-plan document is meant 
to be used constantly, not put away on a library shelf for the 
admiration of visitors. To facilitate this use a two-inch margin 
should be left at the side of the text throughout the document, 
excepting tables, for the purpose of allowing notes to be made 
from time to time by officers charged with the execution of the 
plan. This simple device keeps a plan alive and up to date and 
greatly facilitates the work of revision (Section 4). 

The field work in connection with forest organization often 
results in the collection of many interesting and valuable silvi- 
cal and other data which, while germane to the working plan, 
are not a cognate part thereof. Such data, including volume, 
growth, and yield tables, silvical notes, notes on climate, geology, 
soil, etc., should be placed in the appendix or elsewhere con- 
venient, in order that everything in the plan may be confined 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 115 

to the actual scheme of management for the forest. These as 
already stated are : 

i. Orientation. 

2. Foundation. 

3. Recommendation (silvicultural treatment). 

4. Regulation. 

The first three of these were largely covered in Chapter I, 
the last in Chapter II. It is, therefore, only necessary here to 
consider them from the documentary standpoint. 

1. Orientation 

(a) Location and Size.— The briefest mention suffices. 

(b) History of Forest with Important Changes.— Past and 
present ownership and administration, boundaries, past object 
of management, past revenues and expenditures. 

(c) Salient Physiographic, Social, and Industrial Features — 
The physiographic features include topography, drainage, 
geology, soils, and climate. Detailed observations and statistics 
should be reserved for the appendix, and only the salient char- 
acteristics which influence the forest organization stated briefly. 

The social and industrial features include population, labor 
supply, local industries such as lumbering, grazing, mining, 
agriculture, etc., all in their bearing on the problems of forest 
organization. For it is evident that without adequate labor no 
forest resources can be developed, without lumbering facilities 
no regulation of the cut can be maintained or executed, and the 
very term "accessible" is modified by the degree of skill exercised 
in logging and the kinds of appliances used to get the timber. 
Again, the need of the local population for timber is the root 
of the theory of sustained yield. These fundamental phases 
require no detailed discussion, but brief statements of condi- 
tions in explanation of the plan proper. 

(d) Time, Method, and Personnel of Reconnaissance and 
Organization.— These statements should be exceedingly brief— 



116 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

a tabular form is advisable for time and personnel, since they 
are of purely historical interest. The method used should, 
however, be set forth in sufficient detail so that there can be 
no question as to how much weight attaches to the accuracy of 
maps and estimates. 

(e) Digest of Working-Plan Conference. — If a conference 
was had between the forest organizer and the owner or admin- 
istrator of the forest, as suggested in Chapter I, Section i, this 
should be digested and added to the working-plan document 
with the names of the participants. 

2. Foundation 

(a) Growing Stock (Estimates). — The estimates should be 
in form of a table by species and classes of timber, either separate 
or as part of the general stand table. The details of this esti- 
mate table depend on the intensity of the entire plan. It will 
usually suffice to give the totals by compartments (if any) 
and blocks, or else by survey units such as sections, or even 
townships. The estimate for the entire working figure must 
always be given. It must also be stated to what minimum 
diameter trees were estimated and, if available, what average 
deduction must be made for defect. Estimates in greater 
detail, e.g., section sheets showing the stand on each "forty," 
should be reserved for the appendix (see Chapter I, Sec- 
tion 2). 

(b) Increment. — The increment, either current or mean 
annual, or else both, is given, and is expressed either in incre- 
ment per acre or as a per cent (Chapter I, Section 1). Growth 
and yield tables on which the calculation of increment may be 
based should be included in the appendix. 

(c) Distribution of the Age Classes. — If the stand is even- 
aged or approximately so, a table of age-class distribution, like 
the example given in Chapter I, Section 2, should be included. 
Not only does such a table show at a glance the relation of young, 
mature, and overmature timber, but, in the revisions of the 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 117 

working plan, it shows by means of graphic curves or blocks 
(Chapter I, Section i) what progress has been made toward the 
attainment of normality in this direction (see Section 4). 

(d) General Stand Table.— A table approximating, as far 
as possible, the example in Chapter I, Section 2, should be 
included as a convenient tabular summary of areas, volumes, 
and conditions of timber. 

(e) Maps can be elaborated to almost any extent according 
to the kind and importance of the data to be shown thereon. 
The following are the most important: 

(1) A topographic map showing topography in contours, 
seldom hachures; roads, trails, railroads, saw-mills, and all other 
" culture"; drainage. This map is the "base" and should be 
of a convenient scale, such as }4, 1, 2, 4, or even more inches 
to the mile, depending on the size of the tract and the amount 
of detail to be shown. It should be drawn so as to permit of 
being manifolded in order that all officers charged with the 
administration of the forest and the execution of the working 
plan may be furnished with copies. On this "base ' ' can be added 
any or all of the following special data in so far as the wealth 
of detail will not confuse the whole. 

(2) Boundary map showing the ownership (status), the 
forest boundary or boundaries; survey lines, if any; boundary 
or boundaries of the working figures, blocks, compartments, and 
subcompartments (stands) (see Chapter I, Section 2). 

(3) Forest-type map, showing the various forest types (Chap- 
ter I, Section 2), also cut-over areas, burns, open "parks," etc. 

(4) Age-class map, showing the distribution of the various 
age classes. 

(5) Site-quality map, showing the distribution of the various 
site qualities. 

(6) Soil map, showing the various soils and geologic forma- 
tions of the forest. 

(7) Reproduction map, showing areas of good, fair, and poor 
reproduction (Chapter I, Section 2). 

(8) Cutting map, to accompany the general cutting plan, 



118 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

showing areas to be cut over within the next working period 
(Chapter II, Section 2). 

(9) Planting map, to accompany the general planting plan, 
showing areas to be restocked artificially during the next 
working period (Chapter III, Section 3), and areas already 
planted or sown, all nurseries and proposed nursery sites. 

If the plan is to be a complete forest plan, and not confined 
to the silvicultural management, there may be the following 
additional maps : 

(10) Fire map, to accompany the fire plan (see Introduc- 
tion), showing all lookout points, watch towers, lines of patrol, 
ranger headquarters, fire-guard stations, location of fire-fighting 
tools, and places whence assistance in fighting fire may be 
obtained. The base should be maps 1 and 3 combined. 

(11) Permanent improvement map, to accompany the per- 
manent improvement plan (see Introduction) showing all 
improvements, existing or proposed, such as ranger stations, 
fire cabins, telephone lines, etc. 

(12) Grazing map, to accompany the grazing plan (see Intro- 
duction), showing the grazing types, condition of the range, 
the portions grazed (and by what class of stock) or ungrazed, 
the winter, summer, or yearlong range, corrals, pastures, drift 
fences, water tanks, etc. 

Lest too many data be placed on one map, it is better to 
have separate maps than to combine too much and cause con- 
fusion. For ordinary purposes, however, the following maps 
may well be combined: 

Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. Topography, boundaries, types, age- 
classes.* 

Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, and 8. Topography, boundaries, types, repro- 
duction, cutting. 

Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 9. Topography, boundaries, types, planting. 

Various methods of regulating the yield (Chapter II, Sec- 
tion 1) require special data on the map, e.g., if the regulation is 

* If even-aged or approximately so. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 119 

to be by area reduced according to site classes (method No. i, 
variation II; method No. 14, variation II; method No. 16, 
variation II, also method No. 17, Nos. I and III), then a site- 
class map (No. 5) is necessary. 

Detailed maps of survey units or of small areas which it is 
desired to show in greater detail should be placed in the appendix, 
as should also special maps showing areas of insect or fungus 
attacks, etc. 

f. Forest Description. — Must be concise and free from 
burdensome details. These had better be placed in the appendix. 
The forest description of the entire working figure should be a 
careful summary of the descriptions for each block* (see Chap- 
ter I, Section 2). The aim is to present a lucid picture of the 
forest as it is in the essential silvical factors bearing on the plan 
of management adopted. The description must be ample 
reason for the provisions of the working plan. The description 
is the premise; the recommended management the logical 
deduction from that premise. 

g. Division of Area.— On the basis of the forest description, the 
division of area should be so evidently logical as to require very 
little special justification. However, it is well to explain briefly 
what considerations governed in the choice of working figure, 
block, compartment, and subcompartment (Chapter I, Section 
2), in so far as this was not already covered in the digest of the 
working-plan conference. Since the working figure is the unit 
of sustained yield, its adequacy from this viewpoint should be 
considered along the broad lines laid down in Chapter I, Sec- 
tion 3. 

3. Recommendation 

The recommended management should be the logical se- 
quence of the data given under "Orientation" and "Founda- 

* These, together with the estimate and map sheets of the survey unit 
(see " Reconnaissance," Chapter I, Section 2), should be placed in the appendix 
or else filed conveniently for future reference. 



120 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

tion." The basic considerations of silvicultural method of 
management, object of management, and rotation are contained 
in Chapter I, Section 3 . This part of the working-plan document 
should review the governing conditions which determine the 
recommended management. These are: 

(a) Object of Management — i.e., the wishes and purpose 
of the owner (in so far as not already contained in the digest of 
the working-plan conference). 

(b) Practical Restrictions of market, logging accessibility, 
fire danger, erosion danger, etc. 

(c) Silvicultural Method of Management which can best 
fulfil the object of management with the given silvical condi- 
tions and under the practical restrictions imposed. Past manage- 
ment and its mistakes and lessons should be reviewed and the 
proposed method of management given in detail. The best 
silviculture is not always possible under existing conditions, 
and the organizer must seek to combine the three divergent 
factors of object of management, practical restrictions, and 
silvical requirements into a harmonious scheme of management. 
This should cover: 

(1) Silvicultural system ior each type ^Chapter I, Section 3) 
with brief description thereof. 

(2) Rotation (Chapter I, Section 3) chosen, with reasons for 
its adoption. The period of regeneration, cutting cycles, etc., 
should be given and made entirely clear. 

(3) Marking rules to be followed in the execution of the 
cuttings for natural regeneration. They should be clear and 
concise, simply put so as to be readily intelligible to the non- 
technical man charged with their execution, sufficiently elastic 
to cover all cases. Good marking rules will do much towards 
insuring the actual execution of the silvicultural system decided 
upon, especially when backed by sample areas marked by the 
forest organizer as a concrete illustration. 

(4) Brush disposal rules are a necessary concomitant of the 
marking rules. Here too actual examples of what is desired 
should reinforce the written rules. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 121 

4. Regulation 

As the recommended management (3) is the logical out- 
growth of the data given under Orientation (1) and Foundation 
(2), so the regulation of the yield itself is but the carrying out of 
the Recommendations (3). 

The chief phases of yield regulation are: 

(a) Yield Determination by one or more of the methods 
described in Chapter II, Section i. 

(b) Yield Distribution.— Selection of stands to be cut, forma- 
tion of cutting series, etc., with concise reason for the choice, 
in accordance with the principles given in Chapter II, Section 2. 
Cutting policy in so far as not covered already in the digest of 
the working-plan conference. 

(c) General Cutting Plan for the next working period accord- 
ing to the example in Chapter II, Section 2. It should contain 
in addition recommendations in regard to stumpage rates, 
methods of logging, rules of cutting to prevent waste, and other 
features of practical utilization such as probable purchasers, 
uses and markets, etc. An annual cutting plan for the ensuing 
year is usually drawn up by the administrative officer in charge 
of the forest, and does not as a rule form a part of the working- 
plan document (Chapter II, Section 2). 

(d) General Planting Plan for the next working period 
according to the example given below in Section 3. A descrip- 
tion of the methods and cost of nursery, planting, and seeding 
practice to be employed. An annual planting plan for the 
ensuing year is usually drawn up by the administrative officer 
in charge of the forest, and does not, as a rule, form a part of 
the working-plan document (Chapter III, Section 3). 



122 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

SECTION TWO 

OUTLINES FOR WORKING PLAN 

Three typical outlines for working-plan documents will be 
given. A. The Prussian outline, typical of forest organization 
in countries based on forest-rent.* B. The Saxon outline, 
typical of forest organization in countries based on soil-rent,* 
and, C, an outline typical for the average extensive conditions 
existing in America. This last includes all the phases of a com- 
plete forest plan. 

A. Prussian Outline 

Introduction. Working period (two decades). Revision 
(every decade). Name of forest organizer and assistants. 
i. Letter of minister (secretary) putting plan into effect. 
2. Plan of management. 

Digest of working-plan conference. 

Introduction. Time and scope of work. 

General position and history of the forest. 

The measurements. 

a. Maps. 

(i) Special maps (large scale). 

(2) Location map (small scale). 

(3) Map of servitudes (proscriptive rights). 

b. Record of measurements. 

(4) Boundaries. 

(5) Table of measurements (survey notes) . 

(6) Record of changes in area. 

(7) Record of changes in servitude 
Division of area. 

(8) Ranger districts and blocks 

(9) Compartments. 
(10) Subcompartments. 

* See Part Two, Chapter I, for details. Also Series "American Aspects 
of European Forestry" in "F. Q.," Vol. XI. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 123 

Condition of stand, 
(n) Site. 

(a) Exposure. 

(b) Soil. 

(12) Stand. 

(a) Species. 

(b) Relation of the age classes. 

(13) Injuries. 

(a) Fire. 

(b) Storm (wind). 

(c) Frost. 

(d) Drought. 

(e) Fungus. 

(f) Insects. 

(14) Market conditions. 

(15) Labor conditions. 

(16) Servitudes. 

Regulation of yield and plan of management. 

(17) Former management. 

(18) Basis of present regulation of yield. 

(a) Rotation. 

(b) Plan of yield. 

(c) Calculation of yield. 

(19) Method of cutting. 

(20) Method of regeneration. 
Miscellaneous. 

(21) Financial yield. 

(22) By-products. 

(23) Hunting and fishing. 

(24) Forest protection and policing. 

(25) Fiscal matters. 

(26) Communal relations, i.e., with communal-owned for- 

ests. 

(27) Other matters of interest. 

3. Boundary register (status). 

4. General stand tables. 



124 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

5. Area tables. 

6. Table of servitudes. 

7. Plan of thinnings. 

S. Resume of communal conditions. 

B. Saxon Outline 

Part One. Introduction. Working period (one decade). 
Revision (every five years). 

General stand tables (areas and volumes). 
Site-quality* table and comparison of increments. 
Comparison of age classes and volume (growing stock). 

Table of age-class distribution in per cents and area.f 
Stand-quality table. f 
Results of past management. 

(1) Final cuttings. 

(2) Intermediate cuttings. 

(3) Total yield. 

(4) Yield by cutting areas. 

(5) Money yield from cuttings. 

(6) Plantations, also care of plantations and of the stand. 

(7) Road and trail building. 

(8) Summary of net soil rent (Reinertrag). 
Yield determination. 

General rules of management. 
Part Two. General cutting plan. 
Part Three. General planting plan. 

C. American Outline (suggested) 

1. Orientation. 

a. Location and size of forest (working figure). 

b. History of forest with important changes. 
(1) Past and present ownership (status). 

* "Standorts bonitat." 

t Diagrammatically by means of blocks. See Chapter I, Section I. 

t "Bestands bonitat." 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 125 

(2) Boundaries. Interior surveys. 

(3) Past object of management and general administra- 

tion. 

(4) Past revenues and expenditures. 

c. Physiographic features. 

(1) Topography. 

(2) Drainage. 

(3) Geology (formation). 

(4) Soils (depth, fertility, etc.). 

(5) Climate (maximum, minimum, and average tem- 

perature, rainfall, prevailing wind direction). 

d. Social and industrial features. 

(1) Population. Dependence on forest for work and 

fuel and timber supply. 

(2) Labor supply. 

(3) Local conditions — lumbering, grazing, mining, agri- 

culture, etc. Interrelation with forest. 

e. Digest of working-plan conference. 

f. Time, method, and personnel of field work. Cost, if 

desired. 
Foundation. 

a. Growing stock (estimates). Tabulation. 

b. Increment per acre or per cent. 

c. Distribution of the age classes. Tabulation. 

d. General stand table. Tabulation. 

e. Forest description. 

g. Division of area. Working figure, block, compartment, 

subcompartment (stand) . 
Recommendation. 

a. Object of management. Production of cord-wood, saw- 

timber, turpentine, etc. 

b. Wishes and purpose of the owner (policy if national or 

State forest). 

c. Practical restrictions. Market, logging accessibility, 

special danger from fire, erosion, avalanches, etc. 

d. Method of management. 



126 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

(i) Silvicultural system or systems, their proposed 
application. 

(2) Rotation (period of regeneration, cutting cycle, etc.). 

(3) Marking rules. 

(4) Rules for brush disposal. 

4. Regulation. 

a. Determination of yield. 

b. Distribution of yield. Formation of cutting series, etc* 

c. General cutting plan for working period. 

d. General planting plan for working period. 

5. Administrative plan. 

a. Scheme of field administration. 

(1) Administrative districts and area. 

(2) Field and office force, yearlong and temporary. 

6. Grazing plan. 

a. Description of forage types and condition of range. 

b. Protection and development of range. 

(1) Range improvements. Watering facilities. 

(2) Treatment of overgrazed and partly stocked areas. 

(3) Measures for fuller use of range. 

(4) Control and eradication of poisonous plants. 

(5) Control and extermination of predatory animals, 

prairie dogs, and other pests. 

c. Grazing control. Capacity of range. Grazing districts 

and allotments. 

7. Permanent-improvement plan. 

a. General. 

, b. Telephone. 

c. Look-out towers. 

d. Fire cabins and tool-boxes. 

e. Roads and trails. 

f. Ranger stations. 

8. Forest-protection plan. 

a. Fire control. 

(1) Nature of fire problem. 

(2) Past fires. Bearing on the plan. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 127 

(3) Hazards. Danger zones, extra fire risks, necessity of 

special measures. 

(4) Cooperation. Desirable and proposed cooperation. 

(5) Scheme of protection. 

(a) Primary control by look-outs. 

(b) Secondary control by patrol and actual combat. 

(6) Organization. Look-outs and patrolmen. Action in 

case of fire. 

(7) Mobilization. 

(a) Fire-fighters, regular and volunteer, available. 

(b) Transportation. Logging railroads, pack trains, 

teams, etc. 

(c) Tools, equipment, and supplies. Location of 

tool-boxes. Bases of supplies. 

(8) Improvements. Additional headquarters, telephone 

lines, trails, etc., required. 

b. Insect control ) and other special problems warranting 

c. Fungus control) inclusion. 

9. Uses of forest land. 

a. Settlement. 

(1) Classification of lands, whether of relatively greater 

value for agriculture or for forest purposes. 

(2) Sale prices of land. Comparative land values. 

(3) Cost of clearing land for agriculture and probable 

profits of agriculture thereon. 

b. Special uses. 

c. Water-power sites. Present and future development. 

Stream measurements. 

10. Appendix (observations not properly a part of the main 

working plan) . 

a. General data — geology, soils, climate, occurrence and 

protection of fish and game. 

b. Silvical data. 

(1) Volume, growth, and yield tables. 

(2) List of component species. 

(3) Silvical characteristics of component species. 



128 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

(a) Soil and moisture requirements. 

(b) Influence of elevation and aspect 

(c) Tolerance. 

(d) Reproduction. 

(e) Injuries: fire, storm, frost, drought, fungus, 

insects, etc. 
c. Detailed estimates, maps, and forest descriptions of 
survey units or other units, unless filed elsewhere for 
greater convenience. 
ii. Maps. 



SECTION THREE 
THE PLANTING PLAN 



This is properly an integral part of every working plan, 
but in order to avoid confusion, and not to encumber the subject 
of timber regulation, detailed mention has been reserved for 
this section. 

Some planting operations are necessary in every well-regulated 
forest, whether it be to eke out a too scanty natural regeneration 
or to restock former forest areas where natural regeneration is 
out of the question. 

Just as a general cutting plan is drawn up for the intended 
cuttings in the ensuing working period (Chapter II, Section 2), 
so a general planting plan is drawn up to cover all the operations 
of artificial regeneration which are contemplated during the 
ensuing working period. From out this general planting plan 
the administrative officer in charge of the forest selects those 
areas whose restocking he deems of the most immediate im- 
portance and incorporates them into an annual planting plan 
which, with the approval of his superior officers, becomes the 
planting schedule for the ensuing year. 

As a preamble to the general planting plan should come a 
general discussion of the areas needing artificial regeneration, 
the extent to which it is expedient to go in replanting com- 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 129 

mensurate with the results to be obtained, and other phases of the 
policy to be pursued in the choice of areas. In general, it is 
advisable to restock first those areas on which success seems 
most assured, leaving for the future with its greater experience 
and presumably greater capital those areas where immediate 
success is less certain. For most administrations profit by 
making a good initial "showing" and once the way is paved 
the more difficult operations can be undertaken even though 
they fail to make so good a "showing." Other things "being 
equal, the money return from a planting is surer, larger, and 
sooner the easier the site and the quicker the success of the 
operation. 

This should be followed by a full discussion of the methods 
of regeneration to be employed. First the results of past plant- 
ings and sowing, accentuating the reasons for failure or success, 
and then the policy for future planting and sowing. The source 
of plant material — seeds, seedlings, and transplants should be 
considered; the seed should be shown to be from reliable and 
appropriate sources (sources suitable to the climatic and site 
conditions), and the planting stock preferably grown in nurseries 
on the forest or else secured from outside nurseries whose site 
corresponds approximately to that of the intended planting site. 
If there are to be nurseries on the forest, the preamble of the 
general planting plan gives full provisions for their location, 
creation, and maintenance, and should contain the area thereof 
in seed-beds and their capacity, the area thereof in transplant 
beds and their capacity, and the proposed annual production 
by species and classes of stock. 

The area which it is intended to plant or sow during the 
coming working period should be indicated on the working map 
of the forest either by color, or shading, or symbols. 

The annual planting plan may conveniently take the forms 
on pages 130 and 131, a separate head being used for plant- 
ings and sowings. 

The general planting plan may conveniently take the form 
shown on page 132. 

9 



130 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 






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THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 133 

SECTION FOUR 

CONTROL AND REVISION OF WORKING PLAN 

No working plan can remain alive and useful unless it is 
revised at frequent, regular intervals. These revisions incor- 
porate all the changes which have taken place during the working 
period. 

Since the working period is usually ten years, the working- 
plan document is usually revised every decade. But under very 
intensive conditions more frequent revision may be justified, 
even to the extent of every five years (see Example of Saxony, 
Part Two, Chapter I). On the other hand, a plan should not, 
ordinarily, go without revision for more than a decade, or per- 
haps twelve years, even though the working period be longer, 
e.g., two decades, or even four, as in Prussia and Austria, respect- 
ively (see Part Two, Chapter I). 

Especially under the kaleidoscopically changing conditions 
in most parts of America is it desirable to have frequent revisions 
so that the working plan may really "work" and not become 
obsolete within the working period. Special revisions before the 
end of the working period are, of course, necessitated whenever, 
through storm, purchase, or the like, a substantial change is 
caused in the size, character, or composition of the forest. 

The record of the progress of the forest under the working 
plan is called the control book. This book is conveniently in 
two parts: I, the cutting and planting record; II, the general 
or " history" book. The former may conveniently take the 
following form (page 134). 

It is obvious that this part I of the control book is built up 
from the annual cutting and planting plans. It embodies their 
essentials in convenient form as a permanent record. It can, of 
course, be extended to cover all the activities of the forest besides 
"timber," e.g., grazing. A column for areas can also be added 
between columns 3 and 4 if desired. 



134 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



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THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 135 

A separate page is kept for each convenient unit — be it block 
or compartment, township or section, depending on the needs of 
the administration. 

All areas cut or planted are to be entered on the map of the 
forest. 

Part Two, the "history" book, contains convenient headings 
for a general record of the various forest activities. Such are : 

i. Reconnaissance and boundaries: a running record of the 
reconnaissance done and proposed, be it for timber, grazing, or 
what not, and of the changes in boundaries and the demarcation 
in the field of the boundaries. 

2. Methods of cutting and planting: a running record of 
silvical observations in natural and artificial regeneration. 

3. Forest protection: a running record of all important forest 
menaces; the method and success of the combat with them. 
Such are: 

(a) Fire. 

(b) Storm. 

(c) Frost. 

(d) Drought. 

(e) Fungi. 

(f) Insects, etc. 

Chapters can be added at will for the other forest activities 
covered in a forest plan (see Section 2), such as: 

4. Administration. 

5. Grazing. 

6. Permanent improvements. 

7. Uses of forest land. 

8. Utilization of forest products. 

(a) Methods of logging. 

(b) Methods of saw-milling. 

(c) Markets and prices of stumpage and lumber. 

(d) Utilization of by-products. 

(e) Impregnation of wood (wood preservation), etc., 

ad lib. 
o. Game and the chase. 



136 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

10. Money returns of management. 

(a) Gross income and expense. 

(b) Net income. 
ii. Personnel relations. 
12. Miscellaneous data. 

Such a control book, together with the summarized annual 
cutting and planting plans, corrected maps, and the marginal 
notes and corrections in the plan itself, forms a perfectly adequate 
basis for undertaking the periodic revision. 

The thoroughness of the revision depends on the correctness 
of the original plan. Only rarely should it be necessary to 
rewrite the entire plan. Those portions which come under 
"Orientation," such as physiographic features, social and indus- 
trial features, and under "Foundation," such as forest descrip- 
tion, division of area, etc., can either be incorporated directly 
in the new working plan, or else reference made to the original 
working plan covering these portions in detail. 

In matters of yield determination and distribution as em- 
bodied in the general cutting and planting plans, the revision 
is essentially a recalculation and reallotment. 

The preliminary of every revision should be a working-plan 
conference to review the plan for the working period just passed 
and to make suggestions for the ensuing period. The digest of 
this conference should be incorporated in the revised working 
plan. 

If the forest is essentially even-aged, the revised working 
plan should contain under "Orientation": "History of forest 
with important changes," a diagrammatic presentation of the 
distribution of the age classes, showing graphically the gradual 
approach (presumably) towards normality in this respect. This 
may be shown either by means of a curve or by means of pro- 
portionate blocks (see Chapter I, Section i, "Distribution of the 
Age Classes"). 



PART TWO 
PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



CHAPTER I 
IN EUROPE 

SECTION ONE 

GERMANY 



The chief States of Germany from the standpoint of forestry 
are: Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wurttemberg, Baden, and 
Alsace-Lorraine. For each of these will be given, after a sum- 
mary of the salient conditions, such as size of country and forests, 
topography, species, markets, etc., a brief review of the history 
of working plans, the chief foundations of plans, the methods 
of regulating the yield, and the prescriptions for control and 
revision of the working plan. The same scheme will be followed 
for the data about France and Austria (Sections 2 and 3). 

I. Prussia 

Prussia is by far the largest of the German States, with 
86,118,526 acres, or about 65 per cent, of the total German 
Empire. Of these 86,118,526 acres, 20,427,179 acres, or 23.72 
per cent, are in forest. 

Prussia contains widely varying topography, from the very 

characteristic plains of the northeast to the lesser ranges along 

the Austrian frontier (Riesengebirge) and in the east- central 

portions (Harz, Teutoburger Wald, Taunus, etc.). 

137 



138 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

If one considers Germany as roughly divided into three main 
forest regions by a line from the corner of Bohemia, at Eger, 
northward through Hannover into Liibeck on the Baltic, and 
another line from Hannover westward to Amsterdam, the large 
northeast block may be called the pine region, the small north- 
west block the heath region, and the remaining southwest block 
the hardwood-spruce-fir region. Practically all of the pine 
region is contained within Prussia, and this explains the pre- 
ponderating percentage of Scotch pine — -60 per cent as against 
12 per cent of spruce and fir, 5 per cent of oak, 15 per cent 
of beech, and 4 per cent of birch and alder— in Prussia. 

The markets for Prussian forest products are so excellent 
as to admit of the profitable placing of all classes of timber with 
only minor exceptions. 

During the nineteenth century the period method of regulat- 
ing the yield ("Fachwerksmethoden," i.e., "Framework Meth- 
ods" — see Part One, Chapter II, Section 3, Method No. 17) pre- 
dominated in Prussia. At first, owing to the influence of G. L. 
Hartig, it was a strict volume-period method (" Massenf ach- 
werk," i.e., volume framework). The official instructions of 1819 
provide a detailed allotment by volume and classes of material 
for each of the six periods of the 120-year rotation. The im- 
practicability of such calculations without adequate bases soon 
brought a change from Hartig's strict method, the more so 
since such slow progress was being made toward the goal of 
having working plans for each forest. Therefore, in 1836, after 
a provisional regulation of the yield had been accomplished 
between 1826 and 1835, a new order for regulating the yield 
was issued which remained in force almost to the end of the 
century. Though still based on the volume-framework method, 
the calculation of yield was simplified, and the equality of area 
was also taken into consideration together with a correct dis- 
tribution of the age classes and the formation of cutting series. 
With the introduction of the factor of area, the volume-period 
method (Massenfachwerk) fell into abeyance and the combined 
period method (Kombinierte Fachwerk) came to be used for less 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



139 



regular stands, the straight area-period method (Flachenfach- 
werk) for the more regular conditions.* 

Of late the calculation of yield has been more and more 
confined to the ensuing period (the I period), paying little or 
no attention to the periods following (periods II, III, IV, V, 
and VI). 

The general stand table is combined with the general cutting 
plan, and takes the following form: 
Column ia Block and compartment. 

" ib Subcompartment. 

" 2 Soil description. 

" 3 Site quality. Average height 

4 Average age and age limits. 

5 Form of mixture (scattered, groupwise, etc.). 

6 Percentage of chief species in mixture. 
" 7 Defects and diseases. 

8 Percentage of stocking (density). 
Area of the whole compartment. 
Species. 

' over 1 20 years 

IOI-I20 " 

81-100 " 
6i- 8o " 
41- 6o " 

21- 40 " 
I— 20 



9 
10 

11 

12 

*3 

14 

IS 
16 

T 7J 
18 

J 9 
20 
21 

22 

2 3 

24 

2 5 



Area by 
Age 

Classes 



area in hectares. 



II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

Unstocked blanks 

Period in which to be cut. 

Present 

Stands growing 

to be cut J stock 

in the I j Species 

period. Volume at the middle of the period in 

Cutting area in hectares, [cu. metres. 



f Total in cu. mtrs. 

I Per hctr. in cu.m. 

Increment per ct. 



* For outline of Prussian working plan, see Part One, Chapter III, 
Section 2. 



140 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

Column 26 Cutting area of the II period in hectares. 

" 27 Silvicultural system of cutting. 

" 28 Species to be planted. 

" 29 Area to be planted (of that given in columns 18 
and 25). 

" 30 Remarks and necessary additional details. 

The block and the ranger district usually coincide. Working 
figures (working circles, "Betriebsklassen") are segregated when- 
ever there are salient differences in species, rotation, or method 
of management. 

The block is subdivided into rectangular units called " Jagen" 
("hunts") in the plains, "Distrikte" ("districts") in the moun- 
tains. The boundaries are roads or topographic features (ridges, 
streams, etc.). The average size in pine stands is from 49.4 
to 74.1 acres; in spruce stands, from 24.7 to 49.4 acres. 

Subcompartments are not segregated for minor differences, 
and never for less than 2.47 acres (1 hectare). 

To insure continuity of records the numbers and boundaries 
of blocks, compartments, etc., are not changed except for urgent 
reasons. 

The soil and rock description is usually taken directly from 
the geological survey maps. 

The site quality is usually gauged by means of the yield 
tables published by the experiment station. The average height 
is determined by hypsometer measurements of representative 
trees in the main stand. 

In uneven-aged stands in which the age classes blend one 
into the other, the age limits and average age are indicated; 
where the age classes are widely divergent (e.g., very young and 
mature) they are entered separately. Great weight attaches 
to the age class and area table. The area is reduced according 
to per cent of stocking, i.e., stands whose density is less than .8 
are reduced proportionately in area. The areas of each species, 
in pure stands, are entered separately; this is why column 10 
immediately precedes columns n to 17. 

The criterion of cutting the sustained yield is the normaL 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 141 

area of the period. This is determined by the proportion of the 
period to the rotation which is usually — = f. An annual 
sustained yield is not required, but, under regular conditions, the 
periodic yield must be sustained even for the individual blocks; 
under irregular conditions more than the normal area can be cut 
if there is an excess growing stock, and vice versa. With species 
requiring a long period of regeneration (e.g., natural regeneration 
by shelterwood-selection method requires often forty years) the 
areas are allotted in detail for the I and II periods, but not the 

volumes. 

The cutting is virtually restricted to the stands indicated 
for the I period. The manifest impossibility of selecting such 
stands twenty years in advance and then barring all the others 
has led to a universal demand for the "Opening of the II 

Period." 

The choice of stands for the I period, i.e., the stands to be cut 
during the next twenty years, is prescribed as follows: Mature 
stands and defective stands are chosen first. Without undue 
sacrifices the object to attain is the equalization of the age-class 
distribution by smoothing out the age differences between sub- 
compartments (unless they are extreme), but not by having too 
large adjacent areas of the same age class, because of the in- 
creased danger from fire, insects, windbreak, etc., in coniferous 
stands especially. Cutting series are, therefore, advised and so 
many points of attack that each cutting area will have become 
stocked with young, thrifty growth before the adjacent area 
is cut. This usually means a wait of twenty years. 

The rotation for the chief species is determined for all Prussia, 
hence only departures therefrom need detailed explanation and 
justification. 

The yield or allowed cut for the twenty-year period is the 
growing stock on the cutting areas of the I period plus the 
increment thereon during ten years (half the period). This 
growing stock is estimated by calipering, either all the trees, or 
a certain per cent thereof, if conditions are sufficiently uniform. 



142 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OP WORKING PLANS 

The volumes are then calculated from volume tables. The 
volume of stands of the younger age classes is, if sufficiently 
regular, taken directly from yield tables, or by means of sample 
areas.* The increment per cent is usually taken directly from 
the yield tables. 

The allowed annual cut is then found by dividing the volume 
of the entire I period by twenty. 

A separate cutting plan for thinnings is drawn up. The yield 
in thinnings is approximated from past experience. This includes 
the accidental yield through drought and windfall. 

The regulation of yield in selection forests is purposely 
simplified, since these all-aged stands are primarily intended 
for protection. The division into subcompartments is usually 
waived; the age classes are only approximated, and the calipering 
of every single stem is not necessary. The allowed cut for the 
I period is estimated for each working figure according to the 
ripeness for cutting. Where the selection forest is a distinct 
unit of sufficient size (e.g., & block) the average annual increment 
of the whole is determined and taken directly as the allowed 
annual cut in so far as there is not a marked excess or deficiency 
in the growing stock or the condition of the forest or other 
cogent reasons demand a heavier cutting or vice versa. Where 
the selection forest has been under regulated management for 
some time past, experience will dictate the approximately correct 
annual cut. 

Control and revision of the working plan are provided for 

* The field-work is done by younger members of the Service (forest 
assessors, etc.), sent out by the Office of Forest Organization in Berlin (where 
also the maps are made and the necessary clerical and computing work done), 
but working under the direction of the supervisor. It is preceded by a working- 
plan conference between the district officer, the supervisor, and the forest 
assessor. This body is called the Taxations Commission. This conference 
discusses ways and means, is digested and incorporated in the working-plan 
document (called the " Abschatzungswerk," a bound volume of some 125 pages, 
manuscript or typewritten, with ample margins for additional notes). The 
working plan must be submitted first to the Commission and then, through 
regular channels, to the Minister of Agriculture, whose letter putting the 
working plan into effect is incorporated in the bound volume. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 143 

by means of the control book, the chief note-book (Hauptmerk- 
buch), and the area register. 

The control book serves the double purpose of checking the 
estimate and the allowed annual cut. For the allowed cut 
must be adjusted according as the estimates are shown to be 
just right, or too high, or too low. If too high, there will be 
a deficit at the end of the period; if too low, there will be a sur- 
plus. The allowed annual cut is not strictly maintained; silvi- 
cultural or market conditions may necessitate a higher or lower 
cut.* Of course this must be offset by reducing or increasing the 
cut in the years following. 

Each cutting is entered in the control book, Part A, where for 
each Jagen, or District (compartment), there is a page whereon 
to show the time and kind of cutting, the species, and the amount 
obtained by classes of material. 

When the cutting of a stand is finished the result is compared 
with the estimate and the difference entered in control book, 
Part Ai, which is arranged as follows: 

Column i. Block. 

" 2. Compartment. 

" 3. Subcompartment. 

" 4. Year in which cutting is completed. 

" 5. Estimate in cubic metres by species. 

" 6. Actual cut in cubic metres by species — from con- 
trol book, Part A. 

" 7. Plus difference in cubic metres between columns 
5 and 6. 

" 8. Minus difference in cubic metres between columns 
5 and 6. 

At the end of each yearf a balance is struck, and the result 
of this comparison between the estimate and the actual cut is 

* An Oberforster (supervisor) may not exceed the allowed annual cut 
by more than five per cent without the consent of the district office; over 
ten per cent requires the consent of the central office in Berlin. 

f Formerly every three years. 



144 



THE THEORY AND PEACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



applied to the allowed cut as entered in control book, Part C,* 
which is arranged as follows: 



Year 




Cut by Species, in Cubic Metres 




Allowed 














Actual 














Balance ± 













This balance, be it a plus or a minus sum, is carried forward 
and used as the basis of the cutting plan for the year following, 
taking into account the plus or minus divergence of the estimate. 
At the same time Part C serves as a current record of the annual 
cuts. It is customary to add brief marginal explanations of the 
cuts larger or smaller in amount than the calculated yield. 

The chief note-book (Hauptmerkbuch) is a running history 
of the forest showing the occurrences, management, measures 
taken, observations made, etc., to form the basis for a new 
organization of the forestf and as a guide to new administrative 
officers just taking charge of the forest. It is divided in two 
parts — the first, a general part, divided into various headings 
for the recording of events connected with the history of the 
forest, observations, and also recommendations, under the 
following headings : 



* Part B has long since been abandoned. 

f This is sometimes supplemented by a " Taxatorische Notizbuch," i.e., 
a note-book containing data especially concerning the field-work and operation 
of the working plans. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



145 



i. Surveying and estimating. 

2. Methods and results of cuttings and plantings. 

3. Forest protection. 

4. Status and servitudes. 

5. Miscellaneous: markets, utilization, by-products, the 
chase, money returns, personnel, etc. 

The second part of the chief note-book is specific, and con- 
tains a page for each compartment whereon to record the events 
and changes affecting it. It is in tabular form, as follows: 



Column 1 


Compartment. 


it 


2 Area. 






3 
4 


1 
h Cuttings, * 


Year. 
Area. 


(i 


5 




Year. 


tt 


6 




Method of planting or sowing. 


ec 


7 




Species. 


(C 

cc 


8 
9 


■ Plantings. < 


~ , . , . ( Amount of seed. 
Plant material used. 1 x _ . , 

( Num. of plants. 


(c 


10 




Area restocked. 


cc 


11 




Cost aside from cost of the seed. 


cc 


12 


Remarks. 





As a supplement to this, all changes in boundaries, soil utiliza- 
tion, in the character of the stands through cutting or planting, 
new constructions such as roads, etc., are entered on a map 
of the forest. 

The register of area consists of four parts: 

(A) The index to all extant maps, estimates, and working 
plans for the forest. 

(B) A record of all changes in area. 

(C) A record of all changes in ownership, servitudes, etc. 

(D) A record of the changes in the area devoted to the growth 
of timber. 

Since the year 1852 there have been detailed instructions 
for the revision of working plans. Until recently this included 
not only the regulation of the yield, but also the actual admin- 

10 



146 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

istration of the forest. With the advent of frequent statistical 
reports and inspection trips, this last fell into abeyance. 

The work of revision is similar to that of a new working plan; 
the degree of revision necessary depends on the changes which 
have occurred. Preparatory to the revision, each portion of the 
forest is carefully gone over to determine its present condition 
as compared with the condition at the time the estimate was 
made, in order to form an adequate basis for judging the effective- 
ness of the measures of the working plan, their further use- 
fulness, and extent to which they require revision. The results 
of this examination are presented in brief — oftentimes tabular — 
form, especially as concerns cuttings, plantings, financial results r 
changes in area, servitudes, and the like. 

Simple revisions are made by the Oberforster (supervisor) 
himself, more complicated ones by men especially detailed, as 
in the case of the original estimates. All revisions are based 
on a conference between the officials concerned, following the 
precedent of the working-plan conference; this conference 
decides upon the further usefulness of the working plan as it 
stands, just what revisions are to be undertaken, and along what 
lines. 

The following are given as the chief considerations in the 
revision of a working plan: 

(i) The correction of the surveys and estimates. The area 
register and the second part of the chief note-book together 
with the forest maps posted to date are aids in this. 

(2) Review of the accomplished cutting and regeneration. 
The bases of this are the control-book and the chief note-book. 
As an index to the results of management, the cut is totalled for 
the period ; in addition there is compiled from Part A 1 of the 
control-book a comparison of the estimated cut with the actual 
cut; the areas planted or sown during the period are also sum- 
marized. 

(3) Review of the silvicultural method of treatment, the 
rotation, division of area, etc. 

(4) Review of the regulation of the yield both in determina- 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 147 

tion and distribution. This may involve a partial or even 
complete revision of the estimates. 

(5) The drawing up of new general cutting and planting 
plans according to the revised regulation. 

(6) The correction or even redrafting of the forest map. 

II. Bavaria 

Bavaria is the second largest of the German States. Of its 
18,739,890 acres, 32.51 per cent (6,072,386 acres) are in forest. 

Bavaria presents widely varying topographic and forest 
conditions, from the rugged spruce and fir-clad northern ranges 
of the Alps along the southern boundary, through the varied 
spruce, fir, and Scotch pine stands mixed more or less with hard- 
woods, of the central and northern portions, to the extensive 
stands of pure spruce on the east — the famous "Bohemian 
woods," low ranges not exceeding 5,000 feet elevation, which 
form the boundary with Austria — and the magnificent oaks of 
the Spessart in the north-west corner. 

The market for timber in Bavaria is very variable. In the 
more remote localities, such as the Alps on the south or the 
" Bohemian woods'' on the east, utilization is still, necessarily, 
incomplete. In the northern and central portions of the kingdom 
intensive agriculture has brought with it the profitable possi- 
bility of complete utilization. 

Systematic forest organization in Bavaria dates from 1830, 
when the combined period method (see Part One, Chapter II, 
Section 1, Method No. 17) was adopted by a governmental 
order.* The period was taken as 24 years instead of the cus- 
tomary 20 years. The yield was regulated for three periods — 
72 years — in advance. 

The end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth 
century witnessed a revolution in the forest policy of Bavaria, 
away from the often excessive conservatism of the early days, 
towards a more liberal interpretation of the State's economic 

* "Instruktion fur Forstwirtschaftseinrichtung," June 30, 1830. 



148 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

duty, especially in regard to the increasing tendency to manage 
the State forests for profit as well as for a future timber 
supply. 

This change in general policy has manifested itself in the 
new instructions for forest adjustment.* These are the most 
recent of the working-plan instructions for any of the major 
States, and because of their absolute modernity deserve some- 
what detailed mention. 

The objects of forest organization are given as: 
(i) To give a clear conception of existing conditions in the 
forest. 

(2) To deduce from these conditions and the purposes which 
the forest is to serve the object and methods of management and 
the determination of the yield. 

(3) To regulate the yield in detail for the ensuing working 
period. 

(4) To control the execution of the plan and to secure 
statistical data thereon. 

The working-plan unit (working figure) usually coincides 
with the administrative unit (forest), but this is not essential; 
if conditions on two or more adjacent forests are sufficiently 
similar one working plan may suffice. 

The working-plan unit (working figure, "Betriebsverband") 
is divided into districts, and these into compartments. This 
division is primarily for the purpose of orderly arrangement 
and easier orientation. 

The basis of division into districts (blocks) is usually topo- 
graphic; sometimes, however, matters of status and of servi- 
tudes cause the segregation of a district. 

The basis of division into compartments is chiefly silvi- 
cultural, i.e., differences in elevation, exposure, opening of logging 
means, formation of a forest mantle against windfall, etc. The 
actual boundaries are usually topographic — ravines, ridges, etc. — 
with artificial boundaries — roads, trails, cut-out lanes, etc. — as 

* "Anweisung fur die Forsteinrichtung in den Koniglich Bayrischen 
Staatswaldungen," Munich, 1910, Verlagsbuchhandlung Oskar Beck. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 149 

needed. For mere division of area a width of 3 metres (9.84 feet)* 
suffices ; where protection from fire or wind also comes into play 
(formation of windmantles) , the width must be increased 
accordingly. 

The determination of existing conditions (the first task of 
forest organization) begins with the division of each compart- 
ment into forest and non-forest soil; the latter includes not 
only those areas unsuited for forest, but also those suited for 
forest but used otherwise. Where accurate measurements are 
impossible, as in the Alpine zone, estimates of the relative area 
suffice. 

Of the forest areas, those are to be distinguished whose 
yield is naturally very slight (Alpine type) or, for reasons of 
protection, cost of logging, etc., do not permit of complete, 
regular utilization. 

The compartment is divided into subcompartments. The 
basis of this division is the individual stand. On the stand as 
the ultimate unit is built up the entire management. 

The stand, or subcompartment, must be a unit as regards site, 
soil quality, species, age, and character (growth, density, health, 
etc.). A stand must differ in at least one of these features in 
order to be made into a subcompartment. However, all minor 
differences are to be disregarded. The minimum size of a sub- 
compartment is usually 1 hectare (2.47 acres). 

In coppice and in selection forest the segregation of stands 
(subcompartments) is often impossible, and the compartments 
must suffice. 

Wherever possible the subcompartment boundaries are to be 
topographic features or roads, trails, etc. Where these do not 
suffice, lines are cleared to a width of 1-2 metres (3.28 to 6.56 
feet) and rings of white paint put on the border trees. 

In uneven-aged stands the average age as well as the age 
limits is to be given. Throughout the greatest attention is given 

* In Saxony the main compartment lines running north and south (AVirt- 
schaftsstreifen) average 9 metres (29.52 feet); the secondary compartment 
lines running east and west (Schneisen) average 4^ metres (14.76 feet). 



150 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

to the presentation of the age classes in their relation to area by 
i, species, singly and in mixture; 2, site qualities; and 3, density 
of stocking. These are shown graphically by means of diagrams. 
The reason of this attention to the age- class relation is that 
in even-aged high forest it is made, in conjunction with data on 
the thriftiness of stands and their suitability to the chosen site, 
the basis of regulating the yield and of judging the progress 
towards a normal forest. In coppice with preponderating stand- 
ards ("Oberholzreichen Mittelwald") and in selection forest a 
presentation of the age classes is seldom practicable; the most 
that could be done would be a summary of the area occupied by 
each age class within, the same (uneven-aged) stand, and this 
gives no adequate basis for judgment. 

Detailed estimates are confined usually to those stands 
intended for cutting during the ensuing working period of ten 
years. Ocular estimates suffice if conditions are regular and 
there are available data on cuttings of, or yield tables for, similar 
stands. In all other cases caliper measurements either of sample 
plots or of every tree, as the irregularity of the stand may neces- 
sitate, are required. 

The increment is to be determined for the next twenty years, 
because it is a fundamental principle that, at the end of twenty 
years at the latest, the working plan is to be completely revised, 
growing stock, increment, and yield redetermined. However, 
only half the increment for the twenty years is to be added to 
the present volume of the stands to be cut, since at the end of 
the first decade half of the stands so designated will have been 
cut and be without further increment (see diagram, Part One, 
Chapter II, Section 1). 

The increment is taken either from suitable normal yiexd 
tables or as the current annual. The former is simple ; the latter, 
in irregular and overmature stands, more reliable. The mean 
annual increment can be used if, by investigation, it has been 
determined what relation with increasing age and on different 
site qualities the current annual increment bears to the mean 
annual. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 151 

A peculiarity of Bavarian forest organization is the "Char- 

N 
acter Index" (" Charakterzahl ") of the stand; -j or the number 

of stems per hectare divided by the average diameter. This 
index figure is determined separately for each stand. 

In the description of existing conditions, special attention 
is paid to the methods of getting out the timber and suggestions 
for the development of roads, and other logging methods. Forests 
only partially accessible demand a plan of logging which includes 
portions now inaccessible as well as those already opened to 
management. This plan is usually indicated on a contour 
map. 

The real and the normal growing stock are determined (the 
latter from yield tables), since they show whether there is an 
excess or a deficit. The relation of normal increment to normal 
growing stock gives the normal yield by which the actual yield 
can be judged (see Hundeshagen's formula, Part One, Chapter II, 
Section i, Method No. 7). 

On the basis of conditions as they exist, the general rules 
of management are then formulated according to the objects 
which the forest is to serve. A decision must therefore be reached 
as to species, form of stands desired, silvicultural systems, 
working figures ("Betriebsklassen"), and the rotation to be 
adopted. Finally the cutting area for the next working period 
must be fixed. 

A working figure ("Betriebsklasse") is that portion of one or 
more administrative units ("Betriebsverbande," forests) varying 
sufficiently from conditions on the rest of the area to warrant a 
separate age-class table and calculation of the yield. These 
variations can be in silvicultural system; in different age of 
maturity in the species (i.e., different rotations); in marked 
difference of increment, especially in widely varying elevations; 
and in important servitudes which influence the course of man- 
agement. 

It is to be remembered, however, that too many working 
figures make the plan unwieldy and difficult of execution, hence 



152 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

only considerable differences are to be taken into account in 
forming working figures. 

The instructions for determining the rotation age are a 
declaration of principles for the new Bavarian forest policy. 
The rotation age is to be governed by the objects of manage- 
ment: "Without violating the sustained yield and with due 
regard to rights of user, to secure the highest possible production 
of those classes of timber best suited to the needs of the com- 
munity and of the country as a whole. In addition, the admin- 
istration is bound to manage the State property entrusted to it 
in an economic manner, and from the management to secure the 
highest possible money revenue. 

"According, therefore, as a forest is not exclusively or pre- 
ponderatingly intended to satisfy servitudes or to be a protection 
or a recreation forest, the management must aim at the largest 
possible production of most demanded timber and at the economic 
securing of a maximum money revenue." 

The rotation age must be determined from this standpoint. 
This determination is not to be confined to the older stands^ 
but must extend to the younger classes whose origin and growth 
are often different from that of the older timbers;* for in fixing 
the rotation age, the period of years required for these younger 
stands to reach maturity is the most important. 

The possible rotation period is bounded on the lower side 
by the merchantability of the sizes secured, on the upper side 
by the age at which the forest rent ceases to increase. The time 
of maximum forest rent is therefore the extreme rotation age. 
As a rule the rotation is to be fixed at that age which produces 
the maximum amount of timber of medium size, provided the 
site quality permits. On poorer sites the growth is slower, and 

* This difference is well illustrated by the Western yellow pine. Measure- 
ments made by the author near Flagstaff, Arizona, in 1907, show that the 
mature yellow pine, when in the "blackjack" form, grew much slower 
than the present "blackjack" of the same size; e.g., at 100 years of age the 
present "yellow pine" were 13.2 inches diameter breast high; the present 
"blackjack" 17.95 inches diameter breast high. See Forest Service Bulletin 
101, "Western Yellow Pine in Arizona and New Mexico," tables 9 and 10. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 153 

there the management must be satisfied with the production of 
smaller sized timber if the rotation is not to be unduly prolonged. 

Some sacrifices, however, of mere income to the production of 
larger timbers is proper, since it is the duty of the state to provide 
for these. But where this can be secured only at the sacrifice 
of a satisfactory income per cent the prolongation of the rotation 
is unwarranted. 

Besides the mathematical calculations of timber and money 
yield certain other factors come into play, e.g., the influence of 
the rotation age on the condition of the soil and on the capacity 
of the stand for natural regeneration, the increased danger of 
windfall, the decreased vigor with increasing years, the possi- 
bility of intensive thinnings, and other partly economic, partly 
silvicultural, partly administrative considerations. 

Where there are several species with considerable variance 
in their rotation age, but working figures are not segregated, 
the rotation age is taken as the geometric mean of the respective 
areas and rotations. 

In selection forest a rotation age is difficult of determination 
because of the widely varying conditions of growth. Diameter 
is a better guide, i.e., the diameter of greatest productivity 
determined by measurements of sample trees. Trees which have 
reached the diameter so determined are merchantable. 

For every working figure the area must be determined which 
is to be cut over in the ensuing twenty-year working period. 
The fundamental consideration is to gauge the cutting areas 
so that overmature stands and cutting of immature stands are 
both avoided, but at the same time so that undue vacillations 
of area cut over do not occur with their bad effect on local 
market for and needs of timber, employment for men in the 
woods, and also delayed normality in the distribution of the age 
classes. 

If the cutting areas are gauged properly and if, in addition, 
by means of prompt regeneration, care of soil and growth, the 
increment in volume and in value is furthered, then the demands 
of a sustained yield are fully met. 



154 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

In the normal forest the periodic cutting area is constantly 

Total area TTT1 . , ...... 

equal to ^ . — X 20. Where the age-class distribution is 

abnormal this figure can serve only as a means of comparison. 
In such a case the periodic cutting area is the sum of the stands 
requiring cutting for silvicultural reasons ("hiebsbediirftig"), 
stands now mature ("hiebsreif ") or becoming mature in the next 
twenty years. 

Where the distribution of the age classes shows a marked 
departure from the normal, the progress of the cuttings must 
be gauged for several decades in advance, so as to foretell the 
progress which the cutting of the present working period will 
make towards a normal distribution of the age classes. This 
is to be done schematically according to the following form: 

Premise. — Rotation = 100 years. Area = 982.2 acres. 

1 . ,. • 082.2 
Normal periodic cutting area = X 20= 190.4 

acres; for silvicultural reasons (overmaturity and poor growth) 
this has to be increased to 258 acres. This overcutting is 
then equalized in ensuing periods. (See table next page.) 

The distribution of cutting areas for the ensuing working 
period is not confined to assigning half the periodic area to the 
ten years elapsing before the intermediate revision. The admin- 
istrative officer in charge of the forest requires leeway in the 
choice of where to cut; for he must vary his points of attack, 
use to the full each seed year, secure a mixture of species by 
advance regeneration of certain ones (e.g., of fir in spruce-fir type; 
of beech in pine-beech type), take thought of the fluctuations 
in the demand for timber, aim to secure each year an approx- 
imately equal revenue, etc. This is possible only if the field of 
operations is larger than the mere ten-year cutting area. This 
is secured by allowing the administrative officer in charge of 
the forest to pick from the periodic (twenty-year) cutting area 
those areas for the cutting in the ensuing decade which he deems 
most expedient for reasons of silviculture, cutting sequence 
(cutting series), administration, and maturity. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



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156 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

If the sum of the stands so chosen greatly exceeds the allowed 
ten-year cutting area, those stands are to be excluded and saved 
for a future decade whose growth is the most thrifty and valuable. 

By dividing the entire periodic cutting area into the mer- 
chantable volume thereon, the cut per hectare is obtained. This 
multiplied by the annual cutting area gives the allowed annual 
cut in volume. 

In coppice with preponderating standards and in selection 
forest regulation by area is not desirable, since it does not do 
justice to the complicated and varying needs of the tree in such 
uneven-aged stands.* In such stands the cut for the ensuing 
working period consists of all trees above a fixed diameter 
(determined as stated above), in addition the volume of those 
trees which during the next ten years will reach this diameter 
and such as have to be removed for silvicultural reasons ("wolf- 
trees," "snobs," etc.). In the case of coppice with standards 
there is, also, of course, the volume of the coppice. A tenth of 
the total amount for the next decade is the annual yield; this 
is checked by the current increment per cent — the sum of the 
increment per cents of each diameter class, and by the result 
of past cuttings. Order and progress of the cuttings are insured 
by the observance of a cutting cycle. 

The provisions for renewal of the working plan are as fol- 
lows: Each plan is drawn up for a period of twenty years, but 
at the end of the first decade an intermediate revision — or 
review — is had; at the end of the twenty years a complete 
revision is had resulting in a new plan. Exceptional circum- 
stances may necessitate a complete revision before that time, 
as when unforeseen changes have occurred in the very founda- 
tions of the plan. Often, however, it suffices in such cases to 
make provisional changes for the remainder of the working 
period. Natural calamities — wind, fire, etc. — always require 
some time, as things are, before the measure of the catastrophe 
can be properly judged. 

* Where the undergrowth is too dense to permit calipering, it may be 
necessary to regulate the yield, even of coppice with standards, by area. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 157 

The intermediate revisions are to cover the following points: 

a. Necessary corrections of the methods of determining the 
yield (checking of estimates, etc.). 

b. Determination of the cutting areas for the past decade, 
comparison with the allowed area, and determination of the 
area for the ensuing decade which again is really that for a period 
of twenty years. 

c. Emendation of the plan of management. 

d. Determination of the volume yield of the next working 
period (based on a, b, and c). 

e. The making of a new map of the forest. 

In the main revisions the task is a similar one, but more 
exhaustive. The results of the management during the past 
period — 20 years — are to be compiled and the whole structure 
of the working plan renewed as may be necessary. 

Bavaria, in common with many of the German States, has 
a separate section of working plans in the central office at 
Munich. This section is charged with the field-work and the 
office preparation of the plans. The supervisor of the forest 
concerned is consulted in every feature of the plan; he and his 
subordinates are charged to assist in the preparation thereof. 

The bases of the plan as well as the completed plan require 
the approval of the royal ministry of finance, forest section. 

The procedure in working plans is as follows: 

During the working period the supervisor is supposed to 
keep careful record of such results of management as aid in 
judging of the volume and value yield. The underlying field 
data can often be supplemented by him during slack periods of 
the year. 

In the last year of the twenty-year working period the super- 
visor has to report about the execution of the working plan, the 
experiences gained thereby, and about the essential results of 
the management, the changes in the condition of the forest, to 
express himself about the fundamentals of the working plan 
and to base suggested changes on detailed data. 

The district inspection officer has to express himself as to 



158 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

this report and these recommendations of the supervisor. The 
working-plans officer assigned for the task has then, in company 
with the district officer and the officers of the forest, to go over 
the forest in detail. On the basis of this trip over the forest, 
and after due consideration of the proposals made by the dis- 
trict officer and the supervisor,* the working-plans officer draws 
up the fundamentals of the new working plan, and the scheme 
of field-work. Often, of course, some of these fundamentals 
must await, at least in part, certain investigations in the field; 
for such points a supplement is to be prepared. 

The fundamentals as agreed upon at the working-plan con- 
ference and any supplement thereto, must be approved by the 
State ministry of finance. 

In the last year of each decade, also, the supervisor must 
anticipate the intermediate revision or review by a report on 
the correctness and applicability of the methods of yield deter- 
mination and of the rules of management. 

A working-plan conference and consequent drawing up of 
the fundamentals of the proposed plan are not necessary in the 
intermediate revisions. 

The field-work is done by assistants of the working-plans 
officer in so far as the forest force cannot be used therefor. 
The party may be divided into sections, each under the direction 
of a section chief versed in working-plans procedure. These 
section chiefs and their workmen are instructed (if necessary 
in writing) by the working-plans officer acting in conjunction 
with the administrative officers of the forest. 

The supervisor has to keep in touch with the progress of 
the work and the manner of execution. The section chief, on 
demand, must report thereon to the supervisor. 

The working up of the field data and the preparation of the 
working-plan document is the task of the section of working 
plans in the central office at Munich. As soon as the essentials 
of the plan are ready in rough draft, they are to be submitted 

* If their advice is refused the reason for such refusal must be stated 
by the working-plans officer. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 159 

to the supervisor of the forest for his review and written rec- 
ommendations and memoranda. These last are to be incor- 
porated in the working-plan document. Then the draft of the 
plan is submitted to the officers of the district and central 
offices, who must also record any divergent opinions in writing. 

Finally, all new working plans or main revisions have to be 
laid before the ministry of finance for its approval, which puts 
the plan in force. In intermediate revisions it suffices to notify 
the ministry of departures necessitated from the original plan, 
before submitting the revised plan to the supervisor for execution. 

A map of the forest forms an indispensable part of every 

working plan. 

No special document is necessary for the intermediate revi- 
sions; the existing plan is merely amended in the text, if neces- 
sary by the insertion of extra pages. 

A part of every revision is a resume of the management dur- 
ing the working period just concluded. 

III. Saxony 

Although small in size— 3,703,271 acres— Saxony is, because 
of its dense population and great industrial development, the 
state of third importance in Germany. Despite its dense pop- 
ulation, 949,813 acres, or 25.65 per cent of the total area, is 
forested. 

Saxony is a compact unit, roughly triangular in shape, the 
low mountains of the Erz Gebirge forming the base and the 
city of Leipzig the apex. The stands in Saxony are, overwhelm- 
ingly, pure spruce with Scotch pine stands in the northern, 
plains portion. 

The Saxon markets are pluperfect, which explains the suc- 
cess of the Saxon spruce management with such a low rotation 
and resulting small diameter.* 

Forest organization in Saxony is under the control of a cen- 

* See " Management of Spruce in Saxony," Article V in the series. "Amer- 
ican Aspects of European Forestry" in "Forestry Quarterly," Volume XI. 



160 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

tral bureau of forest organization (Forsteinrichtungsanstalt) in 
Dresden. This has worked well, since it has secured uniformity 
of methods and results and an experienced, well-drilled per- 
sonnel. It also established for forest organization a definite 
and correct interrelation with the other branches of forestry — 
administration, experimentation, etc. 

As in most of the German states, the regulation of yield 
was first by the period method. Heinrich Cotta, who system- 
atized the working plans for the Saxon state forests in the years 
1811 to 1 83 1, endorsed both the area period and the combined 
period methods. Frequent, regular revisions soon obviated 
the necessity of determining the yield several periods of twenty 
years each in advance. The period method was therefore aban- 
doned and the determination of yield confined to the next decade 
by means of the stand method ("Bestandswirtschaft") (Method 
No. 16, Part One, Chapter II, Section 1).* 

The division of area is as far as possible rectilinear, the 
boundaries being used as roads. Because of the imminent 
danger of windfall in spruce, the lines are run parallel with and 
at right angles to the prevailing wind direction. 

Stands (subcompartments) are segregated down to a mini- 
mum area of half an acre. The prevalent uniformity of con- 
ditions permits of tabulated forest descriptions. Site quality is 
gauged both according to the intrinsic quality of the soil (Stand- 
ortsbonitat) and according to the quality of the stand growing 
thereon (Bestandsbonitat) . The two by no means always coin- 
cide; for the stand growing on a certain site is not necessarily 
the one best suited to it. 

The age classes are in twenty-year gradations — each age 
class is again divided in half so that the age-class distribution is 
recorded by decades. 

Owing to the great regularity of the stands, calipering is not 
ordinarily necessary. Stands less than half of the usual rota- 
tion of eighty years are estimated from yield tables; stands 

* For outline of Saxon working plan, see Part One, Chapter III, Section 2. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 161 

over forty years old are estimated ocularly and reestimated at 
each ten-year revision. 

Where clear cutting preponderates, the normal annual cut 
is taken roughly as the total area divided by the rotation. The 
proper rotation age is determined by applying the index per 
cent (Weiserprozent) to the individual stand, i.e., determining 
the maximum value increment (see Part One, Chapter I, Sec- 
tion 3). Tables of value increment have been prepared for 
the whole kingdom of Saxony, based on the prices secured in 
the open market for the various classes of timber. 

Saxon forestry foots on the soil-rent basis. In order to show 
the profits of management on this basis, the net income for the 
whole forest is compared with the total cost of production. 
This is done for purposes of forest organization, by determining 
the timber and soil capital which the forest represents and 
then showing in tabular form the rate of interest returned 
thereon for each year by the forest management (Reinertrags- 
iibersicht) . 

The normal annual cutting area is maintained as nearly as 
may be. Under irregular conditions, departures therefrom are 
necessary. The table of age-class distribution serves as an index 
to the degree of departure necessary. If the higher age classes 
are in excess, the annual cutting area is increased; conversely, 
it is diminished. Hence, a careful exposition of the age-class 
distribution is of vital importance. 

The Saxon system, of maximum money returns on the invest- 
ment, demands that those stands whose index per cent is lowest 
be cut first. The next most important consideration is the cut- 
ting series; for the preponderance of spruce, the danger from 
windfall demands that the cutting areas progress towards the 
prevailing wind direction. Since the cutting strips are narrow 
and an interval elapses before the adjacent strip is cut, it fol- 
lows, as a general rule, that the cutting series are short. How- 
ever, in order to accomplish this and to avoid the joining to- 
gether of large areas of practically equal age, it is necessary to 
liave many points of attack. To secure these, the edge of a 

11 



162 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

stand exposed by the removal of the sheltering stand to wind- 
ward, must betimes be accustomed to the exposure by the for- 
mation of deep crowns — the so-called forest mantle or wind 
mantle (see Part One, Chapter II, Section 2). 

The most important task of the forest organization, as re- 
gards arrangement of area, is the selection of these points of 
attack for the cutting series. The further development of the 
cutting series can, however, be only sketched, since it depends 
on circumstances which the organizer at the time of drawing up 
the plan cannot know. 

The volume of the cut for the working period of ten years 
is found by ocular determination of the stand on the area to be 
cut over. The yield to be expected from thinnings is gauged 
according to the results of the decade past, aided by yield 
tables, and, of course, with special regard to the needs of the 
stands. 

Stress is laid on the continuity of statistical records re age- 
class distribution, volume of growing stock, yearly cuts in 
amount and classes of material, the gross income, the expenses, 
the net income (Reinertrag) , the forest capital, etc. These 
records have been kept in Saxony since 18 17 and are invaluable 
aids for purposes of forest organization. 

In addition to the revisions at the end of the ten-year work- 
ing period, there are, in Saxony, intermediate revisions in the 
middle of the working period. The most important features of 
revision are the entry of cuttings and plantings on the map of 
the forest; the comparison of the actual cut with the estimate; 
the necessitated departures from the prescriptions of the work- 
ing plan, etc. 

For purposes of forest organization the usual stand map 
(scale of 1 : 20,000 or 1 : 15,000) showing species, age, classes, 
and cutting series is used as a base whereon to show the intended 
cutting areas of the next decade, special planting areas, the 
cutting series, etc. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 163 

IV. WtJRTTEMBERG 

Wurttemberg and Baden between them contain the Black 
Forest, that long line of lesser ranges flanking the Rhine on the 
east. Wurttemberg has an area of 4,819,958 acres, of which 
30.77 per cent or 1,483,025 acres are forested. 

Wurttemberg is traversed by various lesser ranges which 
give to the whole kingdom a rolling topography. The species 
corresponding thereto are preponderatingly spruce and fir. 

The splendid development of the timber market in Wurt- 
temberg and of the road system necessary to get the timber on the 
market puts Wurttemberg on a par with Saxony as regards 
financially, profitable management. 

Wiirttemberg's systematic forest organization dates from 
the year 1878. The experience gained during the years follow- 
ing led to a sweeping revision'in 1898. The period method was 
dropped, with its impractical endowment of areas in advance 
for each twenty-year period of the rotation. Attention was 
centred on the segregation of stand units, i.e., subcompartments 
and the regulation of yield based thereon rather than on the 
area of arbitrary divisions (compartments). The condition of 
the individual stand was made the criterion of regulation; the 
yield is no longer determined in advance for the whole rotation, 
but usually for only the first period of 20 years, exceptionally 

for the second period also. A 

. Area 

Normally, the cutting area of the I Period = p . — 

X 20. Exceptions are necessitated under abnormal conditions 
such as an excess or deficit of merchantable timber, etc. With 
thrifty stands and a proper distribution of the age classes (in ten- 
year gradations) the sum of the merchantable stands will auto- 
matically aggregate the periodic cutting area. 

In the choice of stands for regeneration, great attention is 
paid to the formation of proper cutting series, just as in Saxony 
(see above).* 

* See also Article VI of the Series "American Aspects of European For- 
estry," "Forestry Quarterly," Volume XI. 



164 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

The process of forest organization is summarized as follows: 
After rotation, silvicultural system, and species have been set- 
tled upon and the actual condition of each stand (subcompart- 
ment) accurately determined, the first period of twenty years 
is endowed with the proper area of subcompartments according 
to the principles outlined above. Then for the next decade the 
stands on half the period area are accurately estimated (cali- 
pered). Since there are always unlooked-for contingencies re- 
quiring cutting of areas aside from those provided for in the 
plan, an amount based on past experience is allowed for such 
emergencies. 

A separate area plan is drawn up for thinnings. 

Forest organization in Wurttemberg is in a state of transi- 
tion from the period method to that by stands; it is not quite 
"off with the old" as yet nor "on with the new." 

i 
V. Baden 

The Grand Duchy of Baden is the neighbor state of Wurt- 
temberg. It.has a total area of 3,725,007 acres, of which 1,402,- 
454 acres, or 37.65 per cent, are forested, the highest percentage 
of any of the German states, only excepting the petty princi- 
palities ct Waldeck and of Reuss.* 

The Biack Forest range traverses Baden from north to south 
like a backbone. The preponderating species are therefore 
spruce and fir (whence the name "Black Forest") except in the 
norther plains and along the Rhine, where there are stands of 
hardwoods (mostly coppice) and of Scotch pine. 

As in Wurttemberg, a magnificent road system makes acces- 
sible every portion of the forests; a ready market exists for 
almost every class of products. 

In Baden, too, forest organization developed from the vol- 
ume period method (Massenf achwerk) . But under the pre- 
vailing forest conditions of the Grand Duchy, which is charac- 

* These have 38.18 and 37.74 per cent, respectively. The average for 
the whole German Empire is 25.88 per cent. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 165 

terized by splendid natural regeneration,* especially of fir, the 
method did not prove feasible; for the process of natural re- 
generation requires a much longer time than the twenty-year 
period (usually from 30 to 50 years). 

Since i860 thoroughgoing revisions of the working plan are 
undertaken every ten years. They are based on the results of 
the past decade; the actual cut, as compared with the estimates; 
the effect thereof on the condition of the forest, etc. 

The present working-plan procedure dates from 1869; its 
characteristic features are as follows: 

Foundations. — Before the working-plan data are secured, 
the forest is carefully gone over by the officials who are con- 
cerned in the organization of the forest. This also involves the 
critical scrutiny of the existing working plan in all its parts. 
This examination lays stress on the division of area, the de- 
scriptions of site and of stands, the estimates of growing stock 
and of increment, the results of the previous management, and 
the basic provisions of the future proposed management. 

The general forest description and other "Foundations" 
must set forth clearly the site conditions, the existing species, 
the silvicultural system, the rotation, the rules of management, 
etc. The special forest description gives briefly, for each com- 
partment and subcompartment, the area, volume by species, the 
character and condition of the timber, and the increment. 

The estimates of volume are most carefully executed by- 
special measurements in those compartments undergoing re- 
generation, i.e., in the oldest stands; in the remainder the volume 
is usually determined roughly by means of yield tables, past 
experiences, and sample areas. 

For the determination of the increment yield tables and 
past experiences are used; also increment borings on suitably 
chosen representative trees of the stand (see Part One, Chapter 
I, Section 1). 

Regulation of Yield. — The yield is determined according 

* See " Natural Regeneration in the Black Forest," Article VI of the Series 
"American Aspects of European Forestry," "Forestry Quarterly," Volume XI. 



166 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

to Heyer's formula (see Method No. 9, Part One, Chapter II, 
Section 1). The basis and gauge of the yield is the acutal in- 
crement. The regulations of 1869 prescribe this as the current 
increment "as it will probably be in the next decade." Recog- 
nizing the difficulty of an exact computation, and the restric- 
tion of application to the merchantable yield, it seemed ex- 
pedient to substitute for the current increment the mean annual 
increment. 

The normal growing stock is calculated by the formula 

r 

nv = m X - . Similarly the actual growing stock of uncut 

stands is taken as the product of mean annual increment, age, 
and density of stocking (in decimals). 

More than the increment is to be cut if the growing stock is 
in excess of the normal, and the cutting thereof is silviculturally 
and economically advisable. Less than the increment is to be 
cut if the growing stock is less than the normal. The more 
rapidly in the latter case the growing stock can be raised to 
normal by a saving of the increment, the better it is, provided 
that no substantial economic losses or silvicultural errors are 
caused thereby; in no case is the period of equalization to be 
longer than the rotation. 

With due regard to these principles the annual cut is to be 
fixed according to the local economic and silvicultural necessi- 
ties (emphatically including the wishes of the owner), not for- 
getting the desirability, especially in forests owned corporately 
or communally, of a steady annual yield: violent fluctuations 
In the yield react adversely on the owner's opinion of the 
working plan. A gradual augmenting of the yield will suit the 
owner far better than a sudden increase followed by a slump. 
Furthermore, it must be remembered that in almost every 
decade there are unforeseen contingencies and demands for 
timber which necessitate additional cuttings, in excess of the 
annual cut as fixed; wherefore, in case of doubt, the allowed 
annual cut should be set somewhat lower than is mathe- 
matically necessary. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 167 

The allowed annual cut in coppice and coppice with stand- 
ards is solely by area and not by volume. 

Statistical Record has, since 1869, been in intimate conjunc- 
tion with forest organization so as to have systematic data on 
conditions and results, to simplify the working-plan documents 
and to be applied as precedents, good or bad. 

The vital statistical records are: The history of the particu- 
lar administrative unit (origin, composition, status, etc.); the 
description of the forest according to the subheads: forested 
area, topography, management, forest utilization, logging 
methods, forest protection, the chase, money returns, etc. 

These data are compiled for the first time by the adminis- 
trative officers of a forest, but the continuation and supplement- 
ing thereof is done by the forest organizer at revision of the 
working plan. 

VI. Alsace-Lorraine 

These provinces conquered from the French in 1870-71 con- 
tain the major part of the Vosges Mountains, a long line of lesser 
ranges flanking the Rhine on the west. Together they have 
an area of 3,584,711 acres, of which 1,086,385 acres, or 30.31 
per cent, are forested. 

The topography is rolling, becoming mountainous in the 
southern portion of the Vosges. The species correspond closely 
to the topography: coppice hardwoods and Scotch pine in the 
more level portions; fir and beech and some spruce in the 
mountains, with oak on the foothills. 

The road development and the timber markets of these 
provinces are rapidly approaching the same degree of perfection 
as already exists in the neighboring state of Baden. 

When Germany gained control of these provinces in 187 1 it 
became necessary at once to have provisional working plans for 
each administrative unit. These were made by the adminis- 
trative officer in charge of the forest, passed upon by the in- 
specting (district) officer, and finally approved by the minister. 



168 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

The essentials of these provisional plans are the division of area,, 
plan for roads and trails, determination of the method of man- 
agement and of the silvicultural system, fixation of the rotation, 
etc. 

As soon as possible following thereupon, regular working 
plans were constructed, based on these provisional plans. Re- 
vised plans are also prescribed at the expiration of each twenty- 
year period, after substantial changes in area or growing stock, 
and in cases of transition as from high forest to coppice and 
vice versa. 

The regulations of 1904 lay stress on the following features 
of forest organization.* 

Division of Area. — The segregation of compartments is done 
in conjunction with the laying out of the logging and wagon 
roads and the trails. The area in coniferous stands is not to 
exceed 24.70 to 37.05 acres, in hardwood stands from 37.05 to 
49.40 acres. For coppice and coppice with standards the forest 
is divided into annual cutting areas; for there the regulation is 
by area alone. In communal forests one-quarter of the area 
is set aside as reserve, dating from the ordinances of Colbert 
in 1669, which provide that in forests owned by the church, 
or alienated in mortmain, or owned by communities or by 
parishes, one-fourth of the area is to be reserved from cutting; 
the balance to be divided into regular cuts ("coupes regulees"). 

There are no binding prescriptions for the division into 
subcompartments. In larger forests with various species the 
minimum size is to be 2.47 acres (one hectare). For segrega- 
tion on the basis of age differences or differences in density of 
stocking, a minimum of 4.94 acres suffices. Subcompartments 
are segregated only if the area requires distinctive treatment. 
Stands in process of regeneration are to be segregated down to 
a minimum size of 2.47 acres. 

The subcompartments are indicated on the ground by 

* "Vorschriften fur die Aufstellung und Revision der Forstbetriebsein- 
richtungswerke," Strassburg, 1904. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 169 

means of stakes and ditches at the corners and are entered in 
the maps. 

Maps: Field surveys are usually confined to interior lines, 
since reliable geodetic maps are available for both provinces. 
The forest map is usually on a scale of i : 25,000 and shows the 
species by different colors. The cutting areas are indicated on 
the map for the I and II period — i.e., for the next forty years — 
by means of cross hatching, unbroken lines for the I period, 
broken lines and dots for the II period. 

Forest Description is to be short and confined to the charac- 
teristic features such as status, boundaries, surveys, etc.; stand 
and site conditions; the occurrence and interrelation of the 
chief species; past management and results; future, intended 
management, especially species, silvicultural systems, rotations, 
formation of cutting series, regenerative methods, roads, mar- 
kets, by-products, the chase, etc. 

Regulation of Yield. — The criterion of yield is the normal 
periodic cutting area. If the same rotation applies throughout 
the forest this area = the total area of the forest X 20 -r the 
rotation. Where there are several rotations, the normal peri- 
odic cutting area is determined for each species according to the 
ratio of the period to the rotation. The total cutting area is 
then secured by adding together those of each species. 

Stands of the I period in which regeneration cuttings have 
begun are entered with reduced areas in proportion to the per- 
centage of the stand removed. A distribution of cutting areas 
for the III, IV, V, and VI periods is obsolete; these stands and 
their areas are merely entered in the column headed "later 
periods." In deciding on stands for the I and II period especial 
regard is paid to age and thriftiness, and, in coniferous stands, 
on the formation of small cutting series. 

The period method, strictly speaking, is therefore no longer 
used in Alsace-Lorraine. 

The long period of regeneration — often 30 to 50 years — re- 
quires th Q assignment of stands for two periods — 40 years— in 
advance. The stands inte ided for cutting in the I and II 



170 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

period are usually calipered; those of the II period, if suffi- 
ciently uniform, may be estimated by means of sample areas; 
thereto must be added the increment calculated to the middle 
of each period. 

The volume of the allowed annual cut is 1/20 of the 
period volume calculated separately by species. In communal 
forests one-fourth of the allowed cut is to be subtracted (see 
above) . 

In selection stands the yield is determined from the actual 
increment and the relation of the actual to the normal growing 
stock according to Heyer's formula (Method No. 9, Part One, 
Chapter II, Section 1). In order to determine the actual grow- 
ing stock, all the trees above 3^ inches (8 centimetres) in di- 
ameter are calipered. The actual increment is determined by 
increment borings of trees of various diameter classes; the 

ri 
normal increment according to the formula—, where i = the mean 

annual increment. The number of years in which the excess 
or deficit of the growing stock is to be taken up is determined 
for each individual case according to the particular circum- 
stances. The cutting cycle (period between cuts) is not to be 
placed too high: usually 7 to 9 years. 

Planting and Road Plans are to form a part of every working 
plan. The planting plan embraces not only the methods of 
artificial planting, of nursery practice, and the source of plant 
material, but also the care of cutting areas and of young plan- 
tations. 

Revisions of the Working Plan are to take place in the middle 
of the 20-year period. The kind and degree of the revision to 
be undertaken follows from the demands made of the plans and 
the changes which, through the methods of management pur- 
sued or through outside influences, have occurred during the 
first half of the working period (10 years). At the end of the 
working period (20 years) an entirely new working plan is drawn 
up (see above). 

The essential points to be considered in revision are: Changes 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 171 

in area, the actual annual cut as compared with the allowed 
annual cut as regulated, the comparison of the volume yield of 
stands cut over with the estimated volume thereof, the unfore- 
seen cuttings not provided for in the plan, the yield from thin- 
nings, the execution and cost of plantings and sowings, the 
changes in servitudes, the relation of by-products to the scheme 
of management, the completion of road and trail building, etc. 



SECTION TWO 
FRANCE 



The total area of France is 132,492,776 acres, of which * 
18.17 per cent are covered with forests: 5,187,000 acres, or 77 
per cent, hardwoods; 1,583,270 acres, or 23 per cent, coni- 
fers. Of these 6,770,270 acres the State forests comprise only 
12 per cent; the communal forests under State management, 
20.2 per cent. 

The forests of France proper may be divided roughly into 
(1) plain and (2) mountain forests. Under (1) may be included 
the Parisienne zone, the Gironde, the Provencale; under (2) the 
Vosges, Jura, Alpes, Plateau Central, and the Pyrenees.f Cor- 
responding to the topography the chief species are either oak, 
beech, birch, elm, chestnut, and pine, or, in the mountains, fir, 
spruce, pine, larch, and beech. La Savoie is the only region 
of France where the spruce dominates in the forests. In the 
Pyrenees and along the Mediterranean coast species are found 
distinctive of the region, such as hook pine, d'Alep pine, mari- 
time pine, cork oak, live oak, etc. 

The timber markets of France, while not so intensely de- 
veloped as those of Germany, are still almost as omnivorous as 

* From Hiiffel: "Economie Forestiere." 

t For further details see Article: "European Study for Foresters" by 
A. B. Recknagel and Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr.; "Forestry Quarterly," Vol- 
ume X., No. 3. 



172 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

those of the neighbor State on the east because of the relatively- 
smaller per cent of forest land.* 

The methods of forest organization in France are in striking 
contrast to those in Germany. The conditions of forest owner- 
ship have strongly influenced French forest organization or 
"Amenagement," as it is called. Hitherto it has been gener- 
ally assumed that privately owned forests are not suited to a 
sustained yield management. It was thought that the difficulty 
of foretelling future needs and the uncertainty of predicting 
yields were in contravention to the basic principles of forest 
management for private ends and that, furthermore, the grow- 
ing of timber, especially of the larger sizes, is primarily the duty 
of the state and of* the communities. These views coincided 
with the actual conditions of forest ownership: in the forests 
owned by the state high forest is the rule with a high rotation;! 
the forests owned communally are usually coppice with stand- 
ards; and tr-3 forests privately owned, straight coppice. But 
of late conditions have changed substantially: the increased 
prices of forest products and the decreased interest rate have 
made the growing of the larger sizes of timber profitable also 
for the private owner. 

The chief features of French forest organization are the 
division of area, the methods of determining the yield, the dis- 
tribution of the periodic cutting areas, and the determination 
of the allowed annual cut. 

Division of Area. — The state forests and the forests under 
state control are divided into series. These series are adjacent 
forest areas with uniform market conditions and a sustained 
yield; they often coincide with the ranger district (triages). 
"By a series is understood a portion of the forest, intended to 
be covered by a special plan of utilization and consequently to 
furnish a series of annual cutting areas." $ 

The series are subdivided into sections. "By a section is 

* In France 18.17; 25.88 per cent in Germany. 

f 140, 160, 200, and even 240 years. 

{Tassy: "Etudes sur l'amenagement des forSts." 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 173 

understood a portion of the forest distinct from the rest by the 
method of management" (coppice, regular high forest, selection 
high forest, etc.). Accordingly, the segregation into sections 
is based, preferably, on the method of management (regime) 
and on the silvicultural system (mode de traitement). 

The series are further divided into periodic cutting areas 
called ' ' affectations . ' ' 

The division by silvical units, i.e., stands, is called the par- 
celle. These parcelles are the basis of the whole forest organiza- 
tion and of the course of the management. In each forest dis- 
trict (canton) those portions are to be segregated which differ 
in species or in age, or in site, exposure, growth or density 
of stand, in such a way that each portion or parcelle can be 
handled identically throughout. In the records the parcelles 
are classed as divisions if they are permanent, as subdivisions if 
only temporary. The parcelles are marked by stones at the 
intersections of the boundary lines; the boundaries themselves 
by narrow cleared lines or by signs. 

The forest description of the individual parcelles is accord- 
ing to the following form.* 

Column i. Cantons, i.e., forest district, or block. 

" 2. Divisions and subdivisions. 

" 3 / Volume \ subdivisions. 

" 4 ) Contents of the ( divisions. 

" 5. Site and elevation. 

" 6. Exposure. 

" 7. Slope. 

" 8. Soil. 

" 9. Percentage of each species in the mixture. 

" 10. Age. 

" n. Character of the stand. 

" 12. Growth. 

" 13. Remarks. 

Method of Determining the Yield.— The yield is determined 

* Called "Etat descriptif des divisions et subdivisions." 



(1 


12 


IC 


13 


it 


14 


CI 


IS 


(I 


16 


(C 


17 


a 


18 



174 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

by the area period method as appears from the following tab- 
ulated form for working plans.* 

Column 1. Number of the affectation. 

" 2. Names of the cantons. 

" 3. Divisions and subdivisions. 

" 4. ) . . . , ^ ( subdivisions. 

V Area in hectares 01 the I .. . . 
5. ) ( divisions. 

" 6. Site, exposure, soil. 

" 7. Percentage of each species. 

" 8. Density and growth of the stand. 

9} A (present. 

" 10 J I at the time of cutting. 

11 I ( final cuttings ( ordinary. 

^ ( in hectares ( extraordinary. 

Thinnings, in hectares. 

jj . 1 j final cuttings { ordinary. 

/ in hectares ( extraordinary. 

Thinnings, in hectares. 

TTT . , . . , ( final. 

Ill period cuttings, m hectares - ^ , . . 

" ioL 7 . , . • , (final. 

(( y hlV period cuttings, in hectares - ^ . . 

" 21 ?. T . . . . , i final. 

u , S period cuttings, in hectares! ,. . 

2^L_ . , . . , (final. 

tc r VI period cuttings, in hectares^ ,. . 

" 25. Remarks. 

The number and length of the periods vary with the species 
and the locality. For oak in central France eight periods of 25 
years each are formed; for beech usually six periods of 20 years 
each; for fir four or five or more periods of 30 years each. The 

* Reglement general des exploitations par periode pendant la premiere 
revolution (revolution equals rotation). See also Methode de Masson and 
Methode de 1883 (French Mvthod), Nos. 3 and 10, respectively, Part One, 
Chapter II, Section 1. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 175 



approval of the period number and length requires the approval 
of the minister.* 

The rotation age is only fixed tentatively "without attempt- 
ing to fix it definitely by applying experiences whose value is 
often only specious." f 

For the state forests a rotation age is chosen which corre- 
sponds to the maximum possible yield of the most useful classes 
of materials. This has resulted in a conservative tendency 
showing itself in the present conditions of the forests of France 
and of Alsace-Lorraine. In general the adopted rotations are 
distributed as follows: 



Reg. high forest . 
Select, high forest 



Rotation Age 



Under 100 years 100-150 years 



35.7% of total area 
9.8% of total area 



150-200 years 



43.1% of total area 
43.7% of total area 



21.2% of total area 
46.5% of total area 



Distribution of the Periodic Cutting Areas. — This is the most 
characteristic feature of French forest organization. The 
periodic cutting areas are to be so arranged that they comprise 
the area of each period without a break or interrupting area of 
another period. This is in direct contradiction to the aim of 
the German forest organization, particularly of the Saxon. The 
reasons given for this distribution are simplicity in regeneration 
cuttings; of regularity of formation of the periodic cutting areas 
with their narrow side toward the prevailing storm direction 
and bounded wherever possible by roads. Tassy in his " Etudes 
sur i'amenagement des forets" lays especial stress on the un- 
desirability of breaking up the periodic cutting areas into cut- 
ting series 4 

This principle has been followed in the working plans for the 

* Formerly of the Emperor himself by a decree, 
t From a French working plan. 

t Tassy, troisieme etude, Chapter IV, Section 3, "formation des affec- 
tations conformement aux regies d'assiette." 



176 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

state and communal forests. The periodic cutting areas are 
systematically grouped in the maps and on the ground. The 
immediate consequence is that many stands are cut not at the 
time of their maturity, but too soon or too late; furthermore, 
the reproduction cuttings become very large and thus, in the 
future, there will be extensive stands of even age. Both con- 
sequences are attended with drawbacks of management (in- 
creased danger of windfall, fire, insects, fungi, etc.), even though 
these are less in France by reason of the prevalence of the nat- 
ural regeneration and the predominance of hardwoods than 
they would be, for example, under German conditions. 

Determination of the Allowed Annual Cut is both by volumes 
and by values. For the cuttings of the first period a special 
cutting plan or felling budget is drawn up (Reglement special 
des exploitations pour la premiere periode), in which the cutting 
areas and volumes are entered, arranged according to the di- 
visions and subdivisions and according to final cuttings (Coupes 
principales) further divided into Coupes ordinaires and Coupes 
extra ordinaires, and thinnings (Coupes intermediaires). 

The volume of the Coupes principales is determined first by 
caliper measurements entered separately by species; the volumes 
are then computed from volume tables based on the contents 
of sample trees of the various diameter classes. 

The increment for the years elapsing between the estimate 
and the cutting is disregarded in the computation. 

Thinnings are regulated by area; their volume is taken from 
the experience of the preceding decade. 

To the determination of the allowed annual cut by volume 
is added one by values (Evaluation en argent de la possibilite) . 
This is based on the estimate of the classes of timber which is 
made for each species and for each class on the value according to 
the prevailing prices (prix sur pied par nature de marchandises). 
Adding the values of each class gives the total value of the 
felling budget. 

The regulation of yield in coppice and in coppice with stand- 
ards is by area. Coppice systems have reached a point of de- 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 177 

velopment in France far in advance of that in other European 
countries. The regulation of coppice dates from the ordinances 
of Colbert in 1669. The division of area depends on the rota- 
tion age of the coppice under the standards. In the state for- 
ests 50 per cent have a coppice rotation of 20 to 30 years; 46 
per cent have a rotation of over 30 years; in the communal 
forests 77 per cent have a rotation of 20 to 30 years, 20 per 
cent a rotation of over 30 years.* The standards are arranged 
by age classes and distributed equally on the area. These 
standards are either two, three, or four times the rotation age 
(baliveaux de Page, modernes, and anciens, respectively). The 
yield of standards is determined by the number of stems of each 
class and is usually accomplished with the utmost regularity. 



SECTION THREE 
AUSTRIA 



Austria, exclusive of Hungary,! contains 74,101,976 acres, 
of which 24,125,888 acres or 32.6 per cent are forested.^ This 
puts Austria fourth in the rank of timbered countries of Europe, 
preceded only by Sweden with 49 per cent forest area, Fin- 
land with 46 per cent, and Russia with 39 per cent. The 
ownership of Austrian forests, which has profoundly influenced 
the development of forestry there, is as follows: State forests 
n per cent of the total area, communal forests 14 per cent, 
church forests 17 per cent, private forests 59 per cent.§ 

Austria can be conveniently divided into five great districts; 

* For straight coppice 56 per cent of the state forests and 76 per cent 
of the communal forests have a rotation age of 20 to 30 years. 

t The differences of race and language have resulted in all but the po- 
litical separation of the two countries. 

t In Hungary It is 27.8 per cent; in Germany 25.88 per cent; in France 
18.17 per cent. 

§ Data from "Die Holzproduktion Oesterreichs," K. K. Ackerbauminis- 
terium, 1907. 

12 



178 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

these, with their percentage of forested area and the per cent of 
timber tracts over 2,500 acres in size, are as follows: 

w nf % of tracts 

District and included Provinces - /0 " 1 2,500 acres 

torest area and oyer 

Danube (Niederosterreich, Oberosterreich) 34-2 44-6 

Alps (Salzburg, Tirol, Steiermark, Karnten, and 

Krain) 41 . 8 41 . 1 

Coast (Kustenland, Dalmatia) 29 . 6 37-7 

Northwest (Bohemia, Mahren, Schlesien) 29 . 1 65 . 7 

Northeast (Galicia, Bukowina) 27.7 69 . 6 

Totals 32.6 54.3 

of which nearly one-half are tracts of 7,500 acres in size or more; 
nearly one-quarter, or half, of the half are tracts of 25,000 acres 
or more. 

This division corresponds fairly well with the general topog- 
raphy and the forest conditions. The Alps and the northeast 
districts (Carpathians) comprise tremendous mountain ranges; 
the Alps continue in diminished form through the coast district 
to the southeast and break down northward into the rolling 
plains and foothills of the Danube district, this foothill charac- 
ter is preserved through most of the northwest district adjoin- 
ing thereon, grading gradually into the main ranges of the Car- 
pathians, the divide of which forms the boundary between the 
Northern Districts of Austria and Hungary. 

The coniferous species in Austria cover over 60 per cent of 
the total forest area; 21 per cent are hardwoods; the balance 
of 19 per cent are mixed stands. Spruce predominates with 44 
per cent of the total forest area, it occurs at almost all eleva- 
tions from the plains up to timber line, only in Dalmatia is it 
lacking. Scotch pine is next, with 7 per cent of the total for- 
est area, chiefly occurring on the plains. The remainder of the 60 
per cent of coniferous stands are mixtures of various species — 
fir, Austrian and other pines, and larch. 

Of the hardwood stands which cover 21 per cent of the total 
forest area, beech leads the list with 10 per cent, the remaining 
11 per cent are stands of oak with beech, or hornbeam with 
beech, or of aspen, alder, birch, etc. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 179 

The 19 per cent of mixed stands are admixtures of larch, 
Pinus Cembra ("Zirbe"), ash, elm, maple, chestnut, etc 

Austria shows within its boundaries the greatest variety of 
forest conditions.* All phases of vegetation are encountered 
from the semi-tropical shores of the Adriatic grading through 
the sandy and often rocky coastal plains, through the mount- 
ing foothills to the dolomitic or archaic fastnesses of the Alps 
and Carpathians, where all tree growth is dwarfed and even the 
lower stands are constantly threatened with rock slides and 
avalanches. The forest products vary accordingly from the 
finest timbers with high rotations down to mere fuel woods with 
the shortest of coppice rotations. Similarly, some forests are 
in immediate proximity to dense centres of population — as, e.g., 
the Wienerwald just outside the gates of Vienna — permitting 
almost perfect utilization because of a voracious market; some 
forests, on the other hand, are still virgin and as yet out of 
profitable reach of the lumberman's axe. Gradually, though, 
the increasing prices of timber' are making accessible at a profit 
even the stands most remote from centres of population, and 
soon there will be no virgin forests in Austria.f 

Again, the task of forest management is, sometimes, as in 
Salzburg, burdened by servitudes; elsewhere no such restric- 
tions exist. As a result the market varies greatly, but in gen- 
eral it is developing rapidly, especially in the export trade 
to Germany and Italy and other European or Oriental coun- 
tries. 

Eighty-five per cent of the Austrian timberlands are 
managed as high forest, of which one-third is selection forest 

* See "Methods of Natural Regeneration in Austria" and "Methods of 
Artificial Regeneration in Austria," Articles VIII and IX, respectively, in 
the series: " American Aspects of European Forestry," "F. Q.," Volume XI. 

f The Austrian government now constructs its own logging devices, saw- 
mills, railroads, chutes, flumes, etc.; these are used by the purchaser of the 
stumpage for which use he pays a proportionately higher stumpage price. 
Formerly stumpage was sold as in America, and the purchaser put in his own 
improvements; as rapidly as possible these improvements were then bought 
up by the government and paid in cash or in timber. 



180 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

mostly in the "high" protection zone of the Alps; 12 per 
cent are managed as coppice ; 3 per cent as coppice with 
standards. 

Forest organization in Austria has reached a remarkable 
state of perfection despite the exceedingly irregular conditions 
as portrayed. The Austrian Kameraltaxe (Austrian formula — 
see Method No. 5, Part One, Chapter II, Section 1) dates from 
1788; in the Tirol a volume period method was in use in the 
sixteenth century. From these early beginnings a systematic 
forest organization has been built up and extended even to. the 
most remote regions,* comprising not only the State forests but 
also the large tracts privately owned. Practically half of the 
forested area of Austria is under working plans. 

The salient features of Austrian working plans as contained 
in the government code of 1901 f are as follows: 

Division of Area begins with the setting aside of protection 
forest wherever necessary; it is usually divided from the lower 



* For example, the remote Bukowina, lying between Russia and Rou- 
mania on the extreme eastern border of Austria, shows 73 per cent of its 
1,113,970 acres of forest covered by detailed working plans in perfect opera- 
tion. When this province was acquired by Austria in 1775 from Turkey it 
was largely — nearly 50 per cent of the total area — in trackless virgin forest. 
The first work of forest organization, that of making provisional working plans, 
was completed in 1818. About 1850 the preparation of final working plans 
was begun on the basis of period area method; failing of systematic revisions 
these soon became mere waste paper, the more so since it was impossible, for 
lack of markets and of logging facilities, to carry out the cuttings as planned. 
In 1875 a thorough reorganization of the forest administration in the Buko- 
wina was begun looking to the opening up of the hitherto inaccessible timber 
resources. A section of forest organization (Einrichtungsabteilung) was 
created in the Bukowina district similar to that already existing in all the 
other district offices of the empire. A thorough reconnaissance (Durch- 
forschung) was made and on this basis new provisional working plans 
prepared, beginning, of course, with the more accessible forests. As the 
data and utilization warranted it, these were transformed into regular 
plans with frequent revisions, on the model of those prescribed for the rest of 
Austria, with emphasis on regulation by area rather than by volume, as befits 
the more extensive conditions. 

t "Instruktion fur die Begrenzung, Vermessung und Betriebseinrichtung 
der Oesterreichischen Staats und Fondsforste," 3d edition, 1901. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 181 

slopes by a trail following the appropriate contour. This pro- 
tection belt is always managed as strctest selection forest The 
management for the rest of the area is then decided upon and 
the area divided according to working figures (Betriebsklassen), 
cutting series, compartments, and subcompartments. 

An area with a uniform, silvicultural system and rotation, 
uniform market and constituting a single logging unit is called 
a Betriebsklasse; it is further divided into cutting series, whose 
formation depends on the topography, the species, and the 
method of regeneration. A single cutting series does not usually 
comprise more than three compartments. The boundaries of 
the cutting series are topographic or artificial — roads, compart- 
ment lines, etc. These boundaries are to be cleared of timber 
to a width of from 16 to 26 feet, in order that a wind resisting 
forest mantle may form along the edges of the stands. Cutting 
series are shown on the maps by arrows. 

The compartments (Abteilungen) are units of convenience; 
their shape is quadrangular, 2,600 to 3,300 feet long and about 
two-thirds as wide. The boundary lines are topographic, cul- 
tural (roads, railroads, etc.), or else artificial. The last are either 
"Schneisen" and are usually made 6^ feet wide (2 metres), or 
are "Wirtschafts Streifen," with the regular width of 16 to 26 
feet (5-8 metres). (See Part One, Chapter I, Section 2, "Di- 
vision of Area.") 

The division into subcompartments (Unterabteilungen) is 
based (1) on differences in required treatment of which the fol- 
lowing are distinguished: High forest with clear cutting; high 
forest with shelterwood cutting; high forest with selection cut- 
ting; straight coppice; coppice with standards; forest burdened 
with servitudes; protection forest, voluntary or enforced by 
law: or (2) on differences in species if the stands are pure: or (3) 
on substantial differences in percentage of mixture if the stands 
are mixed: or (4) on differences in average age exceeding 10 
years in young, 20 years in old high forest, 5 years in coppice 
forest: or (5) on marked differences in site quality or yield 
quality as shown by substantial differences in the height growth 



182 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

of equal-aged stands : or (6) on marked differences in the density 
of stand: or (7) on need of artificial regeneration. 

The minimum size of a subcompartment is 1^2 acres. The 
boundaries are marked with stencilled numbers painted in 
oil paint on the corner trees or else by means of symbols made 
with a bark scratcher; in young stands narrow alleys are 
cleared. 

Estimates and Forest Description. — As a general rule yield 
tables are constructed for the various silvicultural systems of 
management, species, and site classes, based on sample areas 
measured during the progress of the field-work. The following 
form is used: 

Column 1. Age. 

" 2. Number of stems per hectare. 

" 3. Basal area at 1.3 M. above ground, in square 

metres. 
" 4. Average diameter at 1.3 M. above ground, in 

centimetres. 
" 5. Average height in metres. 
" 6. Average annual height increment in metres. 
" 7. Volume by timber classes, in cubic metres. 
" 8. Increment — current annual, in cubic metres. 
" 9. Increment — mean annual, in cubic metres. 
" 10. Increment per cent — mean annual. 
These yield tables are compared with the published yield 
tables of the International Association of Forest Experiment 
Stations. 

The description of the individual stand covers the following 
phases: 

(1) Soil and site. 

(2) Species, percentage of mixture and general form of the 
stand. The percentage of mixture is expressed in tenths accord- 
ing to the area occupied by each species. Shelterwood cuttings 
are considered as preparatory if .8 of the original volume re- 
mains; as seed cuttings if .5 to .8 remains; as removal cuttings 
if less than .5 remains. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 183 

(3) Both the average age and the age limits are given. The 
table of age-class distribution takes the following form: 

Column 1. Compartment number. 

" 2. Subcompartment letter. 

" 3. Site and stand quality. 

" 4. Barrens and blanks. 

" 5.^1 stands 1-20 { partly stocked 

6. ) years old ( fully stocked 

" 7. II stands 21-40 years old 

" 8. Ill stands 41-60 years old 

" 9. IV stands 61-80 years old ^ in hectares. 

" 10. V stands 81-100 years old 

" 11. VI stands 101-120 years old 

" 12. VII stands over 120 years old 

" 13. Total area 

" 4. ( Area in \ of the areas under regeneration. 

" 15. \ hectares ( of the areas under selection system. 

" 16. Remarks. 

A separate age-class table is prepared for each working figure 
("Betriebsklasse," see above). 

Areas in process of regeneration are entered in full in Column 
14. But, if the cutting is shelterwood the proper proportions 
of the areas appear also in the age class (Columns 4-12) so as to 
show the existing proportion of old timber, young growth, and 
blanks. 

Below the actual area of each age class, the normal area 
thereof is entered for purposes of comparison. 

(4) As index to the yield the following factors are entered: 

(a) The average height of the stand. 

(b) The sum of the basal areas. 

(c) The site quality and species occupying it. 

(d) The present density in tenths of 1 .0 = fully stocked. 
Stands are to be considered fully stocked if the actual volume 
per hectare corresponds to the volume given in the yield table 
for the same age, site quality, species, and silvicultural system. 



184 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

(5) The volume of those stands which are to be cut in the 
next two decades. 

(6) The mean annual increment prorated to the end of the 
rotation. 

The data on volume and increment of the younger stands is 
taken from yield tables; in stands approaching maturity exact 
measurements in the field are required. Stands of varying den- 
sity, and all under 5 acres in size are to be calipered completely. 
In very irregular stands (e.g., mixed species, all-aged, etc.) sample 
plots are measured to cover from 5 to 10 per cent of the total 
area. The volume is calculated from the calipered diameters 
by measuring average trees, so chosen that in height and diame- 
ter they represent the stand in miniature. 

These data are combined in a tabular forest description 
which takes the following form (stand table) : 

Column 1. Locality (corresponds to "Block," Part One,. 
Chapter I, Section 2). 
" 2. Compartment — number. 
" 3. Subcompartment — letter. 
" 4. Soil and slope. 
" 5. Species, per cent of mixture and general form of 

stand. 
" 6. Age of stand — years. 

7. Average height of stand — metres. 
" 8. Total basal area — square metres. 
" 9. Site quality. 

" 10. Density of stand in decimals of 1.0. 
" 11. Area in hectares. 

" 12) TT , . . . (per hectare. 

( Volume in cubic metres ) . L , 
" 13 ) ffor total area. 

" 14 I Mean annual increment prorated ( per hectare. 

" 15 ) to rotation age, in cubic metres \ for total area. 

" 16. Volume increment per cent. 

" 17. Quality increment per cent. 

" 18. Index per cent. 

" 19. Remarks. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 185 

This is supplemented by a general forest description for the 
entire area, covering all of the forest conditions — natural, legal, 
political, economic, commercial, financial, and administrative, 
including personnel. 

Determination of the Yield is for a decade in advance. The 
allowed cut is divided into final cuttings, thinnings, and acci- 
dental cuttings. The basis of regulation is the normal periodic 
cutting area. If the conditions are regular this is adhered to as 
strictly as possible. Often there are large amounts of over- 
mature timber, as, e.g., in the virgin forests of the Bukowina 
mentioned in foot-note preceding, where with a 1 20-year rotation 
the stands over 100 years old aggregated 116,592 hectares in- 
stead of the normal (based on age-class relation) of 33,221 hec- 
tares; an excess of 83,371 hectares.* In these overmature stands 
the increment merely offsets the decay and their interest yield 
on the investment is nil. To substitute for them young, 
thriftily growing stands was axiomatic but required cutting in 
excess of the normally allowed area. The amount of excess 
permissible was fixed on the following three considerations: 
(1) Not so great that regeneration, natural or artificial, cannot 
keep pace with the cutting, and so imperil the continuity of the 
forest; (2) not so great as to depress prices by glutting the mar- 
ket and thus losing all the financial advantage gained by stim- 
ulated increment; (3) not so great as to cause too serious dis- 
turbances of the sustained yield. These considerations were 
met by a sliding scale of area gradually approaching the normal 
as follows: In the I period of 20 years 1.5 the normal area can 
be cut (sometimes 1.6 in the first decade, 1.4 in the second 
decade) ; in the II period of 20 years 1 .3 of the normal area can 
be cut; in the III period of 20 years 1.2 of the normal can be 
cut, and thenceforth approximately the normal amount only 
is to be cut. During the decade ending 1910 the average an- 
nual cutting area in the Bukowina was 3,008 hectares, or approxi- 
mately 1.5 the normal of 2,031 hectares. 

*"Die Forstwirtschaft und ihre Industrien . . . im Herzogthume 
Bukowina," by E. Guzman, Vienna, 1901. 



186 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

The rotation age is determined on the basis of highest net 
income (Forstreinertrag) unless there are cogent reasons, such 
as legal constraints, logging or market conditions, for keeping 
a higher rotation. Stands are therefore considered mature, i.e., 
of proper cutting age, whose index per cent has sunk below the 
adopted interest per cent on the investment ani whose cutting 
will not interfere with the proper development of the cutting 
series. 

In addition to the stands thus mature, the cuttings of the 
ensuing working period are to include all very open stands and 
stands with unsatisfactory increment whose regeneration is 
obviously desirable; and also such stands as must be sacrificed 
to the proper progress of the cutting series. 

The aim is, obviously, to approach a normal distribution of 
the age classes. The length of time required in this approach 
to normal is fixed tentatively. To aid in this and in the fixa- 
tion of the decade cutting area the results of past cuttings are 
reviewed, especially in their effect on the development of the 
proper age-class distribution; this last is shown graphically for 
decades past. 

Based on these considerations the decade cutting area is 
finally fixed and the volume thereon, increased by the current 
increment to the middle of the decade, constitutes the allowed 
cut for the decade. 

In the selection forest of the protective belt, everything is 
subordinated to the protective function and hence no sustained 
annual cut is determined, but the allowed cut merely approxi- 
mated from experience. 

Control and Revision of the working plan which is docu- 
mented in bound form and called an "Operat." — The following 
current records are kept : 

(i) The memoranda book (" Gedenkbuch ") wherein all 
changes other than those of changes resulting from the cuttings 
prescribed in the working plan are entered. Changes in sur- 
veys; in logging methods; substantial injuries to the forest by 
man, climate, fire, etc.; the progress of the hunt and of fishing; 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 187 

personnel; statistics of volume yield and money returns; forest 
experiments, etc. It corresponds closely to the general part of 
the Prussian " Hauptmerkbuch " (see Section i, above). 

(2) The management book corresponds to the Prussian I 
control book, together with the specific part of the Prussian 
"Hauptmerkbuch." It is divided in two parts: The first gives 
for each subcompartment (figure of control— " Kontrollfigur ") 
the yield of cuttings by classes of material and area, the com- 
pleted sowings and plantings, and the early care of the stands. 
The second part contains the total annual cut of the whole 
forest (Wirtschaftsbezirk) compared with the estimate. 

(3) Index of changes in status, comparison of the total, an- 
nual, actual with the allowed cut in volume and area; sum- 
mary of accidental— i.e., unforeseen— cuttings, of plantings, of 
receipts and expenditures, of income, etc. 

Regular revisions are made in the last year of the ten-year 
working period; revisions may be necessary between times if 
unforeseen contingencies occur, such as large windfall, insect 
damage, change of area, etc. The most important tasks of the 
revision are: First, the determination of whether the provisions 
of the working plan just terminating were observed in every 
detail; whether and to what extent the departures therefrom 
were justified; and whether the prescriptions of the working 
plan proved correct, singly and collectively. Second, the cor- 
rection of the existing maps and estimates which may necessi- 
tate the collection of additional field data. Third, the prepara- 
tion of the working plan for the next ten years. 



SECTION FOUR 
RESUME 



A review of the practice of working plans in Europe shows 
that forest organization developed very differently in the vari- 
ous countries. The differences consist in the form of the work- 



188 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

ing-plan document; in the length of the working period; in the 
methods of estimating, forest description, mapping; in the 
principles and nomenclature of the divisions of area. These 
differences arose primarily out of differences in the forest con- 
ditions to which the methods of forest organization were adapted; 
in part also because the various practices developed independ- 
ently of one another. Many of the rules and regulations for 
working plans remained practically unknown outside of their 
immediate sphere of application. 

Despite these differences, the various existing methods of 
forest organization are very similar in the essentials of working 
plans. For all, the most important task is recognized to be the 
designation of the areas which are to be regenerated. For this 
the character and composition of the individual stands is scru- 
tinized. The more unfavorable the condition of the stands is 
in regard to growth, density, etc., the more is their early cutting 
indicated. At the same time, however, all the existing methods 
demand that the stands are not to be considered by themselves 
alone, but in conjunction with the whole area of which they 
form a part and their treatment decided upon accordingly. In 
general agreement are, furthermore, the methods of determin- 
ing the allowed cut. At first, regulation was by volume alone, 
as fitted the irregular conditions encountered; as management 
progressed, area came to play a more and more important part 
in regulation. Area and volume combined are now the basis of 
yield regulation in all intensively managed forests. In Prussia, 
Austria, Saxony, and other countries, the criterion of yield is 
the normal periodic cutting area wherever the conditions are 
sufficiently regular. This area is increased or diminished ac- 
cording to the distribution of the age classes. The volume on 
the periodic cutting area constitutes the allowed periodic cut 
and affords, by volume regulation, a check on the sustained 
character of the yield.* 

The consequent progress of forest organization is also very 

* However, under fairly regular but rather extensive conditions it is. 
considered sufficient to regulate the cutting by area alone. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 189 

a 20 

similar. In the formula — or a — , which represents the annual 

or the periodic cutting area, respectively, r, the rotation, is 
set as a definite figure, as indeed is necessary for the execution 
of a working plan during a definite working period. As a 
matter of fact, however, the rotation age is not a fixed quantity, 
when considered for a longer period of time, but a varying 
quantity influenced by the changing conditions of management. 
To recognize these conditions and to set forth clearly their in- 
fluence is the common task of all methods of forest organization, 
a task more important than the form of the working-plan docu- 
ment and the method of determining the yield. The rotation 
age, i.e., the age of physical, silvicultural, financial, or other 
maturity, whichever may be chosen, is dependent on all the 
conditions of site, silviculture, utilization, and economics, which 
influence the increment of the stands and the value of the 
timber. 



CHAPTER II 

IN AMERICA 

SECTION ONE 

EARLY BEGINNINGS 

Working plans are almost coincident with the beginnings of 
American forestry. Before the control of the national forests 
passed over to the Forest Service of the Department of Agri- 
culture in 1905, the then Bureau of Forestry, through its offer 
of cooperation with private owners, prepared many working 
plans for timber tracts in the Eastern and Southern States. 
Since these plans were for very irregular, extensive conditions 
and were generally intended for execution by laymen who had 
little or no conception of the purposes of forest management, it 
was inevitable that they exceeded the confines of mere forest 
organization and often consisted chiefly of elaborate forest de- 
scriptions and estimates, emphasizing the silvical characteris- 
tics of the more important species, of logging methods and rules 
to prevent waste. Actual calculation of the yield was con- 
fined to a rather crude diameter-limit method which emphasized 
the possible periods of return for an equal or approximately 
equal cut. Little or no attempt was made to distribute the 
cut according to the needs of the individual stands; the regu- 
lation was by volume alone. 

As working plans these were, probably, with rare exceptions, 
failures; for no plan can hope to live that is made from the 
outside without an adequate understanding of the silvicultural 
and economic conditions. It was a precocious attempt to make 
a plan on European models without the basis of exact knowl- 
edge which is the fruit of decades of European experience. 

190 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 191 

The plans, as such, were valuable chiefly for the estimates, 
maps, and other field data which they furnished to the owner, 
and for the volume, growth, and other silvical data which they 
furnished to the Bureau, together with a splendid field training 
for the men concerned in the work. 

It is doubtful if any of the plans were ever maintained; for 
no adequate provisions were made for their control and revision 
and, though drawn up for decades in advance, they soon lapsed 
into desuetude. 

Some were published as bulletins of the Bureau, and are 
now chiefly valuable for the volume and growth tables, and 
other silvical data which they contain, and as landmarks of the 
progress toward an American forest management. 



SECTION TWO 
THE NEW RECONNAISSANCE 

On February i, 1905, the Forest . Service of the Department 
of Agriculture took over the charge of the then forest reserves. 
The tremendous task of organizing the administrative machinery 
over an area of over 100 million acres absorbed all the energies 
of the forest service, and although the need of working plans 
was repeatedly recognized by those in authority and a few 
sporadic plans were actually made,* nothing systematic was done 
until the winter of 1907-08, when for the first time rough esti- 
mates of the timber standing on the various national forests 
were compiled. 

The section of reconnaissance in the office of forest manage- 
ment was reorganized and its activities diverted from a study 
of the distribution, existing volume, utilization, and management 
of the more important commercial species (so called "Comraer- 

* For the details of this development see article "The New Reconnais- 
sance, Working Plans that Work," in Proceeding Soc. Am. Foresters, Volume 
IV., No. 1. Reprinted Yale Publishing Association, 1909. 



192 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

cial Tree Studies") to the far more pressing task of systematiz- 
ing and controlling the estimates, allowed annual cut, marking 
rules, stumpage rates, and sale policy of the national forests 
which then aggregated about 175 million acres. 

The compilation of estimates from the various national 
forests were so glaringly inadequate that steps were immedi- 
ately taken to secure reliable estimates of all the forests, begin- 
ning with those where the cutting was heaviest and threatened 
to exceed the proper allowance. The method of estimating 
developed was that described above in Part One, Chapter I, 
Section 2, "Estimates," and, with minor changes, has continued 
in use to this day. This method aims to strike the mean be- 
tween the rough guesses of supervisor and rangers and the 
accurate but far too slow strip valuation surveys. 

By the placing of several parties in the field each season 
good progress has been made * towards securing fairly 
reliable estimates and forest descriptions and usually excellent 
maps. 

Based on these field data, insufficient though they are, sim- 
ple working plans have been prepared in accordance with stand- 
ard outlines. The outline now in effect (191 2) is as follows: 

I. General Description 

(General data which relates to two or more sections of the plan, or which 
can be treated more logically here than under other sections. Under most 
headings the discussion will be a summary of important points treated in 
detail in other sections of the plan.) 
Creation. Area, past and present. Totals of alienated lands by classes. 

• (Tabulated form.) 
Physical features. (Concise. Include the information which has a distinct 
bearing upon or forms the basis for the provisions of the plan.) 
Climate. (Data not of direct application may be placed in the Appendix.) 
Topography. (For use in the division of the forest into working circles, 
as well as its bearing upon use, development, and administration of 
the forest.) 
Geology. (As it affects soils, etc.) 
Soils. (In such form that statement made may be applied directly in 

silvicultural practice, settlement, policy, etc.) 
Land classification. Forest, agriculture, grazing, barren, etc. (Tabu- 
lated. Brief discussion, if necessary.) 

* See "The Progress of Reconnaissance," "Forestry Quarterly," Volume 
VIII., No. 4. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 193 

Transportation. (Railroads, water, etc., only as it affects the administra- 
tion or the development of the forest.) 

Settlement. Present and probable future. (As it affects the forest and the 
plan.) 

Industries. Mining, grazing, ranching, lumbering, etc. (Only as they have 
a bearing on the plan.) 

II. Silviculture 

Timber: 

Estimates and detailed descriptions of timber. Estimates by species, 
separately by divisions, blocks, and other natural or artificial sub- 
divisions. Quality and condition of timber, age classes if stand is 
even-aged, accessibility, information on logging, etc., as necessary, 
cut-over areas. (Tabulation.) 
Forest Types. Composition, occurrence, distribution of age classes, and 
condition of timber. (Concise general descriptions, and the funda- 
mental silvicultural requirements and principles which form the 
basis for the choice and application of silvicultural systems.) 
Species. (Concise. Treat, from the standpoint of the type and 
the stand rather than the individual tree, the characteristics 
and requirements upon which will be based conclusions regard- 
ing the species to be favored and the relation in the management 
of each species to the others in the stand or type.) 
Climatic, soil, moisture, and light requirements. 
Growth, form, volume, etc. (Tables to be included in the plan 
if they will be used frequently, otherwise in the Appendix.) 
Reproduction. Advance reproduction present. Conditions 
necessary to secure it. 
Value of wood. (Properties. Comparative values.) 
Causes of injury. Fire, insects, fungi, mistletoe, smeiter fumes, 
weather, animals, etc. (Control under protection.) 
Increment. Yield tables or other data, or the method used to deter- 
mine increment. Effect of thinnings on growth, etc. 
Timber operations. 
Markets. 

Consumption and demand, local and general, past, present, and 
future. Relation to surrounding forests if any. Cut, by years, 
sales, and free use. (For use in the determination of working 
circle boundaries and in regulation.) 
Prices. (To aid in stumpage appraisals.) 
Methods and utilization. (Methods in relation to preservation of proper 
silvicultural conditions, also as a basis for costs. Reasonable possi- 
bilities in utilization.) 
Costs. (As a basis for stumpage appraisals.) 
Objects of Management. Watershed protection, species of timber and classes 
of material, sustained annual or periodic yield, etc. (State specifically 
in order of importance the objects which materially affect the provisions 
of the plan.) 

Silvicultural Systems and their application. For each type. (Concise de- 
scriptions of the systems adopted and provisions for their specific appli- 
cation. Include brush disposal.) 
Regulation of yield: 

Rotation, cutting cycles, etc. (Rotation of maximum volume production. 

Cutting cycles as short as practical considerations will allow.) 
Division of the forest into necessary divisions (working circles), areas 
within which sustained yield, annual or periodic, is now or will ulti- 
mately be desirable, based upon markets, transportation, and to- 
13 



194 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

pography. (This may be done elsewhere in cases where such action 

will simplify treatment.) 

Blocks and chances only when they are actually needed to assist in 
regulation. (Blocks — main logging units or groups of logging 
units. Chances — single logging units or the subdivision of 
blocks necessary to carry out the management.) 

Annual or periodic cut. The limitation of cut including sales and 
free use. Accurately for ten years, and approximately for the 
periods of the rotation. (Include in the plan only the essential 
features of the method used, and cover necessary details in the 
Appendix. Blank table for tabulation of limitation and amounts 
actually cut. Sales and free use.) 

Sales. (By divisions, if advisable.) 

Policy. Restriction and encouragement and location. (The plan of 
cutting and specific application to actual conditions of the preceding 
conclusions and of the service policy and regulations. Past man- 
agement to be treated only as it will help in an understanding of that 
proposed.) 

Stumpage appraisals. Maximum and minimum rates. 

Administration and other features. Special force needed. Costs. 
(Summary for use in obtaining total forest expenditures in Section 
VII.) 
Free Use. (Principles applying specifically the general free use policy, espe- 
cially where it is more or less vague and general. By divisions, if 
advisable.) 

Present and prospective annual demand by classes of users and of forest 
products. 

Policy, restriction, or encouragement by districts and classes of products. 

Administration. Free use areas. Blanket or year long permits. Other 
measures to promote economy. Special force needed. Costs. 
(Summary for use in obtaining total forest expenditures in Section 
VII.) 

Map or maps showing topography, types, classification of timber, boundaries 
of divisions, blocks, etc., free use areas, cut-over areas, etc. 

Fores tation: 

General relation to ultimate timber management. 

Areas requiring forestation. By types. (Brief description. Tabulated.) 

Methods and species. (Concise. Base upon results of past work. In 

addition to sowing, planting, etc., include seed collection, poisoning 

rodents, etc.) 

Detailed plan. (Five years, or if impracticable, omit and provide for 

annually.) 

Areas, methods, and costs. (Tabulated.) 

Administrative features. Special force needed. (Regular and 
special work such as seed collecting, etc.) 
Nursery. 

Ultimate production, species, and numbers. 
Methods. (Essential features.) 
Detailed plan. (Five years.) 

Species, numbers, and costs. (Tabulated form.) 
Administrative features. Special force needed. 
Map showing areas to be reforested, classified as above, etc. 

Investigations: (Which can be conducted inexpensively in connection with 
the regular administration of the forest and which should result in prac- 
tical information needed in the administration. Brief.) 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 195 

III. Grazing 

nange Management: 

Types. (Concise descriptions of each.) 

Names of important and characteristic forage plants. 
Accurate data on seasons of growth. 
Accurate data on forage value. 
Acreage. With forage. Waste. (Tabulated.) 
Carrying capacity. Present. Possible. Brief descriptions. By allotments 

or divisions. (Tabulated.) 
Demand and other local conditions in the live-stock industry which affect 

grazing on the forest. Relation to silviculture. 
Allotments. 

Arrangement. (Division of the range between cattle and sheep, grazing 
districts, and individual allotments to be shown on map. Guiding 
principles, or necessary comment in the discussion.) To secure 
Best division between cattle and sheep. 
Full and equal utilization. 

Best division of types and early and late ranges. 
Best division of watering places. 
Proper silvicultural and watershed protection. 
Number and kind of stock grazed. By allotments or divisions. Num- 
ber of permits by classes. 
Seasons. (To secure full utilization of the forage without seriously in- 
terfering with the natural requirements of plant growth, each 
portion of the range should occasionally, every few years, be grazed 
only during the last half of the natural growing period in order to 
keep the plant constitutions strong and allow some actual reseeding. 
So far as is consistent with this principle, the green tender feed should 
be available for the stock during as much of the season as is prac- 
ticable. This is essential, especially for sheep. This plan may be 
considered a variation of seasons or a division of allotment.) 
Fees. By classes of stock and season. (Tabulated.) 
Methods of handling stock. 

Cattle. _ (Salting and necessary riding by permittees to secure equal 
utilization of range and prevent congregation along streams and 
water holes, with resulting destruction of plant growth and poor 
development of stock.) 
Sheep. 

Size of bands. 

Herding. (Develop open quiet herding and avoid driving back to 

camp.) 
Salting. (Encourage abundant use of salt, it means easier herding, 
less danger from poison and disease, and less damage to the 
range.) 
Other stock. (When special provisions are required.) 
Range improvements: 

(Permanent improvements in the improvement section.) 
Reseeding either with cultivated plants or by restricting grazing for 
natural reseeding, posting poisonous areas, changes or improvement 
in stock driveways, extermination of predatory animals, prevention 
_ of erosion by proper handling of stock. 
Policy and administration. 

General principles of policy not already covered. Protective and 

maximum limits, new owners, advisory boards, etc. 
Administration. Extermination of predatory animals, counting 
stock, or other special phases of the work. Special force re- 
quired. Costs. (Summary for use in obtaining total of forest 
expenditures in Section VII.) 



196 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

Investigations: 

Proper seasons, carrying capacity, poisonous plants, artificial reseeding, 
demonstration tests of proper utilization, effect of grazing upon 
reproduction, and most efficient systems of grazing management to 
eliminate damage. Herbarium with necessary notes. 
Map or maps, showing types, water, fences, corrals, topography, grazing dis- 
tricts, allotments, reserved areas, driveways, or other factors or features 
which influence or illustrate the handling of the stock. 

IV. Lands 
Settlement: 

Soils. (Classification with brief description and a statement of compara- 
tive agricultural and forest value of each class based upon land 
values, forest expectation values, etc.) 
Demand for agricultural lands. Past, present, and future. 
Policy. (In I, 2, and 3 order, application of policy based upon the pre- 
ceding classification, results of past policy, service policy, and any 
other principles as a guide to examiners. Practicability of detailed 
classification of certain districts in advance of application.) 
Map, showing soil classification, if data is available. 

Uses and Easements: 
Resources. 

Demand. Past, present, and future. 

Policy. (Special features which are important by kinds of uses or ease- 
ments. Include charges compared with value to users.) 

Water-power: 

Resources. Streams, sites, power. Cost and market data and stream 

measurements. (Tabulate.) 
Demand. Past, present, and future. 
Policy. (Special features.) 

A dministrative sites: 

Sites, rights of way, etc., withdrawn, or still needed and to be withdrawn. 
Include comprehensive plan of rights of way needed for future sales 
and other uses as well as sites and rights of way required in admin- 
istration. (Tabulate or show on map.) 

A dministration : 

Special force needed. Other administrative questions. 

Costs. (Summary for use in obtaining total forest expenditures in 
Section VII.) 

Investigation: 

Map or maps showing status, location of uses, easements, water-power pro- 
jects, administrative sites, etc. 

V. Protection 

Fire: (By divisions or geographical subdivisions, if advisable.) 

Liability. Statement of value of destructible resources by classes, and 

for districts or regions. 

Timber, expectation value of young growth, forage. 

Arbitrary value per acre of watershed protection. (Possible money 

damage. Tabulate.) 
Hazard or risk. Statement by types or regions based upon character of 

stand, danger of fires starting, and difficulty and cost of suppression. 

(Should be based in part upon a study of past experience.) 
Protection required. (Principles which sum up on the basis of liability 

and hazard the relative amount of protection needed in specified 

parts of the forest.) 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 197 



Control 



Improvements available. By districts. (Brief description, tabulate if 
map is not sufficient.) 
Communication. Telephone, etc. 

Transportation. Railroads, roads, trails, pack -trains, etc. 
Fire lines. 

Look-out stations. . - 

Supplies and tools. (Distribution or how they are to be purchased, etc. 

Tabulate.) 
Cooperation. ... r- • *.- 

Adjoining forests, between ranger districts, State associations, cor- 
porations, individuals, etc. 
Organization and administration. 

For look-out stations and patrol. Numbers of men and duties by 

districts. (Tabulate so far as possible.) 
For fighting fires. (Tabulate if possible.) 
Regular and temporary force. 
Cooperation, labor, including users. 

Outside labor. . 

Costs. (Summary for use in obtaining total of forest expenditures 
in Section VII.) , 

Specific and detailed instructions to rangers based on the above, and 
resulting in its direct application should be issued to all forest om- 
cers engaged in fire protection. 
Map showing types, topography, improvements, and as much oi above 
information as is possible and advisable. Copies to accompany 
letters of instruction. 

Insects: 

Extent of infestation and damage. . 

Control, administrative measures, methods. Special force needed. 

Costs. (Summary for use in obtaining total of forest expenditures 

in Section VII.) 

Other damages: 

Extent. Amount of damages. 

Control, administrative measures. (As under Insects.) 

Game: 

Policy and administrative measures. 

Investigations: 

VI. Improvements 

Improvements. Comprehensive plan of the improvements needed. Loca- 
tion, brief description, estimated costs, indicate those which should be 
undertaken within the next five years. (Tabulated form.) 
Roads, trails, telephone lines; fire lines, administrative fences, stock 
fences, including the fencing of poisonous areas and bog holes, 
bridges, corrals, dwellings, other buildings, water development, 
steam improvement, dams to prevent erosion, other projects. 
Maintenance, as above. 
Policy and administration. 

Improvement policy of the forest. (Concisely by lines of work such as 

silviculture, grazing, protection, general administration, etc.) _ 
Administrative provisions. Special force needed. Costs, exclusive of 
the costs of individual projects. 
Map showing all improvements constructed and planned, with a sufficient 
amount of other data to make intelligible. 



198 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

VII. Administration 

Administrative districts. Number, area, and relative importance or amount 

of work. (Tabulate.) 
Force. Office and field and assignment. Salaries. 

Also a brief forecast of future requirements. (Tabulate.) 
. Permanent, statutory. 

Semi-permanent and temporary. 
General administrative policy of forest. (General relation of important lines 

of work. Include also points not already covered; fully and briefly in 

i, 2, and 3 order.) 

Receipts and expenditures and results. By lines of work for fiscal years, past 
and estimated future. 

Administrative provisions for increasing receipts or reducing expendi- 
tures. 

Map, boundaries of administrative, or other districts. 

Appendix 

Material which should be preserved in connection with the plan, but 
which will be used infrequently in actual forest administration. 
List of species. 
Details of methods used in the collection of data, costs, and areas covered. 

(Reconnaissance.) 
Tables, growth, volume, etc., when it is reasonably certain that they will be 

used infrequently. 
Details of method for regulating yield. 
Detailed silvical discussions upon which conclusions and principles outlined 

in the plan are based, if preservation seems necessary or advisable. 
General notes upon which the conclusions in the plan were based. 
Inventory of existing improvements, if desired. (Tabulate.) 

The first attempts to determine the allowed annual cut for 
each national forest, necessarily in advance, often, of any regu- 
lar working plan, were very crude. Nevertheless, though based 
on insufficient data, the attempt recognized the fundamental 
principle of a sustained yield. 

For each national forest the annual yield has been fixed since 
1908. At first this was taken, roughly, as equal to the current 
annual increment, a crude calculation based on often faulty 
estimates and insufficient growth data, but giving at least a 
working basis. 

The allowed cut so calculated was not distributed on the 
ground, since this would have been a useless play, but instead 
a definite sale policy was drawn up for each forest by dividing 
the forest into areas where ordinary sales, i.e., of large size, are 
desirable, areas where small sales (for local industries) only are 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 199 

desirable, areas for free use of inhabitants only, and areas re- 
served as protection forest. 

This rough division of area, indicated on forest and district 
maps, was further supplemented by general notes on areas re- 
quiring cutting because of overmaturity, insect damage, dis- 
ease, fire, and the like. 

Minimum stumpage rates for each species and class of ma- 
terial were also fixed for each national forest so as to prevent 
the wide variation in prices obtained. 

It had been the custom to draw up special marking rules 
for each timber sale of larger size. To avoid constant repetition 
these began to be combined into a set of marking rules for all 
the various forest types contained within a certain national 
forest and these rules made standard for all sales within that 
forest. 

These rules by forests were then combined into general 
marking rules for the various silvical regions of the West. This 
work was completed in November, 1908, and the mimeographed 
marking rules as sent out to all forest officers represented the 
best information then available on the very important question 
of marking trees -for cutting in timber sales. They have been 
revised from time to time and have been aptly supplemented 
by actual examples of properly marked areas as an ocular de- 
monstration of how to do it. 

Although the section of reconnaissance had brought to- 
gether all the data stored in the files of the service and built 
thereon the first crude beginnings of a systematic forest organ- 
ization, further progress would have been impossible except for 
the active cooperation of the men in the field. Realizing the 
inadequacy of the existing estimates and the time which must 
elapse before each forest could be covered by detailed recon- 
naissance, a circular letter was sent to all the supervisors in 
the spring of 1908 requesting them to make every effort to 
correct and amend existing estimates during the approaching 
field season and to segregate the estimates by blocks (i.e., by 
watersheds), by species, and by classes of material. 



200 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

A similar letter was sent asking the supervisors to draw up, 
each for his forest, a plan of sale policy, indicating those areas 
on which cutting should be restricted or encouraged according 
to economic and silvicultural conditions, etc. 

The first crude regulations of the yield (allowed annual cut), 
sale policy, and minimum stumpage rates were also sent to each 
of the six inspection districts and the chief inspector requested 
to revise and amplify them according to his local information. 

In the Southwestern district (No. 3) Acting Chief Inspector 
Woolsey availed himself of this splendid opportunity to draw 
up a complete, far-sighted limitation of cut and sale policy for 
each forest and for the district and also minimum stumpage 
rates by forests, species, and classes of material. His sale 
policy was by far the most complete of any prepared, the more 
so as he proceeded to determine the allowed annual cut for each 
forest, separately for saw timber and cord-wood, by Von Man- 
tel's Method (see Part One, Chapter II, Section 1, Method No. 
2). Crude as this method is, it was a marked step in advance 
and the regulation of yield on the national forests has only in 
the last year or so advanced from Von Mantel's "beautiful sim- 
plicity" to some of the higher methods, such as the Austrian 
formula, Heyer's formula, and the like (see Part One, Chapter 
II, Section 1). 

When the six Western administrative districts were created 
in December, 1908, the office of management, and with it the 
section of reconnaissance, ceased to exist. So enormous had 
been the undertaken task of systematizing and controlling the 
estimates, allowed annual cut, marking rules, stumpage rates, 
and sale policy that only the foundations of a correct forest 
organization were turned over to the districts whereon to build. 

The office of silviculture in each of the districts took over 
the task and the manual of procedure in the district offices 
provided for annual revisions of the estimates, sale policy, 
allowed annual cut, minimum (later standard) stumpage rates, 
and marking rules, to be submitted by the supervisors, combined 
by the district forester and in the case of the allowed annual 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 201 

cut, forwarded by him to Washington for review by the forester 
and approval by the secretary. The limitation of annual cut as 
fixed by the secretary — based, of course, on reasons of sale 
policy — could not be exceeded without his consent. However, 
this was seldom required; for inaccessibility and competitio* 
with private timber restricted the bare possibility of national 
forest sales to a point far below what the forests would support. 
Thus in 191 1 the amiual cut which the national forests were 
estimated to be able to sustain permanently, totalled 3,274,- 
000,000 board feet. The actual cut under both timber sales 
and free use permits was 498,000,000 board feet, but little over 
15 per cent of the actual yield of the forests. 



SECTION THREE 
PRESENT PROCEDURE 



The decentralization of working-plans control resulted in a 
most unequal progress in forest organization. Starting with the 
same foundations in December, 1908, there were, in matters of 
working plans, much confusion and wasted effort. This un- 
fortunate condition was relieved by the issuance, late in 191 1, 
of the forest plans section of "The National Forest Manual " * 
which restores system and purpose to the work of forest organiza- 
tion and is a big step in advance towards unifying the working- 
plan procedure of the various districts. 

The essentials of the manual are given below, together with 
its proposed application in the Southwestern district. It is 
significant to note that the manual calls for preliminary plans 
to be prepared immediately, to be followed, as data warrant, by 
a regular working plan. This continues the work begun by the 

* "The National Forest Manual: Instructions to forest officers, relating 
to forest plans, forest extension, forest investigations, libraries, cooperation, 
and dendrology. Issued by the Secretary of x^griculture to take effect 
November I, 1911." Washington, Government Printing Office, 1911. 



202 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

former section of reconnaissance and emphasizes the fact that 
"the completion of any plan is but the beginning of systematic 
management." 

There follows, in somewhat condensed form, the Forest plans 
portion of The National Forest Manual: 

FOREST PLANS 

The object of the forest plan is to systematize and control 
the management of each forest upon a definite basis which shall 
represent the cumulative experience and information which the 
service has acquired. 

Three different kinds of plans, differing only in scope and 
intensity, will be used in developing the management of the 
respective forests, namely, preliminary plans, working plans, 
and annual plans. 

A preliminary plan is simply a systematic statement, pre- 
pared from the best information now available, of the resources 
of the forest, the conditions governing their use and develop- 
ment, and the administrative measures to be followed in their 
management. 

A working plan is a similar statement, more complete and 
final in character, based upon thorough investigation and accu- 
rate data, and including a definite scheme of management devised 
for a period of years. 

The annual plan is covered by the various periodic estimates 
and reports. It constitutes a periodic revision of the prelim- 
inary or working plan, together with the specific application of 
these plans to the business of the forest for the ensuing year. 

The subjects to be covered in all forest plans are: 

i. General administration. 

2. Silvicultural management. 

3. Grazing management. 

4. Permanent improvements. 

5. Forest protection. 

6. Uses of forest land. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 203 

Each forest plan will provide for the management of a whole 
administrative unit or forest. No plan should include more 
than one forest. Where conditions in adjacent forests are sim- 
ilar, or the forests supply the same markets, these facts will be 
considered, particularly in the location of cutting area and limi- 
tation of the annual cut. Such considerations will also be 
necessary in grazing and protection. 

Where necessary, because of important market or topo- 
graphic considerations, the forest may be divided into areas, 
each of which will be managed with the idea of sustained yield. 
If necessary to assist in regulating the cut, a subdivision of the 
above areas may be made; this should be on the basis of logging 
units or groups of logging units, the boundaries depending entirely 
upon topography. Unnecessary divisions will not be made, 
since they complicate administration. Where possible the lines 
of administrative subdivisions and those for the technical man- 
agement of the forest will be coordinated. 

Final responsibility in the preparation of all forest plans 
rests with the supervisor. He should, in submitting the plan 
for approval, transmit any recommendations of the officer in 
direct charge of its preparation which differ materially from the 
plan as submitted. 

Since the completion of any plan is but the beginning of sys- 
tematic management, every effort should be made to improve 
plans which have been prepared and to obtain the additional 
data needed for more efficient administration. 

PRELIMINARY PLANS 

A preb'minary plan should be prepared as soon as practicable 
on each forest from the data now available. The compilation 
of such data in the form of a definite plan of management will 
systematize and strengthen the administration of the forest and 
furnish a basis for further extension and improvement. The 
following points should be covered: 

Under "General Administration" should be given: 

i. The forest force, based upon the men required to transact 



204 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

economically the business of the forest and furnish adequate 
protection during the fire season. 

2. Division of the forest into administrative and patrol dis- 
tricts to be shown on a map. 

3. A record by classes of past receipts and expenditures and 
an estimate of future receipts and expenditures. 

Under " SilvicuUural management" should be given: 

1. Divisions and subdivisions, if any, with reasons. 

2. Approximate estimates of timber by convenient, tech- 
nical, administrative, or legal subdivisions. 

3. The silvicultural systems which should be used, by types, 
and by divisions if modification of the system on different divi- 
sions is necessary. Principles to govern marking drawn from 
the best silvical data available. The object of management for 
the forest, as far as available information makes it possible, or 
for divisions, classes of material to be produced, species to be 
favored, and rotation desirable. 

4. A rough classification of the timber on the forest, or parts 
of the forest, in accordance with its age and condition, showing 
the bodies of mature timber, of thrifty timber not yet in need of 
cutting, and of young growth; together with a plan of cutting, 
showing the order in which the various areas should be logged. 
Areas of protection forest where no cutting is recommended 
should be indicated. The approximate periods in which imma- 
ture stands will reach merchantable size should be shown. 

5. Recommended limitations on the annual cut* for the 
ensuing four or five years. 

6. Data on methods of logging, accessibility of merchantable 
bodies of timber, costs of logging and manufacture, markets and 
market conditions, demand, prices, etc. 

7. The policy for the whole forest, or divisions if advisable, 
which should be followed as to sales, reservations for local in- 
dustries, and free use, together with the opportunities for de- 
sirable sales. 

* I.e., determination of the yield — see Part One, Chapter II, Section I. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 205 

8. Tentative stumpage rates for the entire forest, or divisions. 

9. Improvements needed to facilitate the sale or protection 
of timber. (To be incorporated in the permanent improvement 
plan.) 

10. The approximate areas on which artificial reforestation 
will be necessary in whole or in part, together with the species 
to be used, and, broadly, the plan to be followed during the 
ensuing four or five years, plans for nurseries, outline of desir- 
able experiments, etc. 

11. The order in which the various parts of the forest should 
be covered by complete reconnaissance,* desirable silvical studies 
leading toward better management, etc. 

This part of the plan should be accompanied by a map show- 
ing topography in as much detail as data available will allow, 
roads, trails, forest types, age classes, if necessary, nursery sites, 
and areas proposed for artificial regeneration. Much of the 
other data called for may be shown either on the map or in con- 
cise tabulations with explanatory notes. 

Under "Grazing" the essential point is to compile all avail- 
able information on the range conditions in the forest as a basis 
for systematic range protection, development, and improve- 
ment. The following outline is intended only as a guide: 

1. Classification of grazing lands and estimates of carrying 
capacity, including: 

(1) Determination of characteristic ecological types or groups 
of forage plants, each of which includes certain combinations of 
grasses, weeds, and browse. The types should be mapped on a 
base map of the forest. Groups containing poisonous plants 
may demand particular attention. 

(2) Concise descriptions of each group or type including 
notes on individual species, the seasons when the plants may be 
used, the relative grazing value of the types, and the class of 
stock for which they are best suited. 

(3) A record in tabulated form of the kind and amount 

* I.e., estimates as described, Part One, Chapter I, Section 2. 



206 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

of stock at present grazed on the land, with an estimate of its 
present grazing capacity, and if overgrazed or poorly stocked 
with forage plants the capacity to which it may be brought by 
proper treatment. 

2. Range improvements: Map record of present and needed 
watering facilities, including wells, streams, springs, natural and 
artificial ponds and tanks, drift fences, and other improvements 
necessary for the best use of the range. (To be incorporated 
in the permanent improvement plan.) 

3. The plan of management should include, with necessary 
maps, notes, and explanatory data, provision for: 

(1) The control and eradication of poisonous plants. 

(2) Improvement of overgrazed or poorly stocked areas, 
including reseeding, the use of a rotation scheme of excluding 
stock from areas for a part of the year to allow seeding of native 
plants, etc. 

(3) Fuller use of the range by the class of stock for which 
it is best suited, including areas not now used. 

(4) Exclusion or reduction of stock or the change of grazing 
seasons when necessary for silvical reasons or the protection of 
watersheds for irrigation or municipal water-supply. Reduc- 
tion to prevent overgrazing, or erosion caused by grazing. 

(5) The better handling of stock, including salting, bedding, 
the prevention of concentration to the injury of the range, im- 
proved herding methods, etc. 

(6) Improvement in range districts, range allotments, etc. 

(7) The extermination of predatory animals, based upon the 
kind and amount of damage done. 

(8) The extermination of prairie dogs, based upon the area 
occupied and the damage done. 

A systematic plan for the Permanent Improvements on the 
forest should be steadily developed, extended, and improved. 

The improvement plan will take the form of a map, and such 
additional notes as may be necessary for its proper understand- 
ing. Rough estimates of cost should be included wherever 
obtainable. The following kinds of work will be considered: 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 207 

Roads, trails, bridges, telephone lines, signal systems, perma- 
nent and temporary headquarters, pastures, look-out towers, 
fire lines, tool boxes, improvements necessary for range develop- 
ment or making timber accessible, and areas in which the blazing 
and posting of trails is urgent. 

Under "Forest protection" provision will be made for pro- 
tection against fire and insects, and the protection of nurseries 
and plantations against rodents. 

A plan for fire protection, as complete as is now practicable, 
should be formulated and put into effect on each forest. 

The fire plan will consist of a map showing detailed topog- 
raphy, forest types, all permanent improvements which will be 
of any value in fire protection, look-out points, lines of fire patrol, 
camping sites, places where assistance in fighting fire may be 
obtained, areas of particular menace and areas in particular 
need of protection, and detailed directions to rangers con- 
cerning fire patrol, and cooperation with other districts and 
forests. 

Under "Uses of Forest Lands" data should be collected 
showing: 

i . Sale prices of agricultural lands within or near the forest, 
including stump lands, unimproved non-timbered lands, and 
improved ranches. 

2. Cost of clearing and stumping timbered lands 

3. Comparative value of timbered land for agricultural and 
forest purposes. 

The location of all uses which have been granted should be 
recorded on a base map of the forest. Any information secured 
as to tracts desirable for particular uses should be similarly 
recorded, especially reservoir and dam sites, as part of the in- 
ventory of the resources of the forest. 

The water-power possibilities of the forests, including stream 
measurements and the collection of cost and market data. 

All administrative sites should be shown on the improve- 
ment map of the forest. Sufficient additional data will be re- 
corded to show in concrete form the system of administrative 



208 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

sites devised for the forest, including patrol and look-out sta- 
tions, nurseries, and sites required for logging facilities, and other 
uses in connection with the sale of timber. 

WORKING PLANS 

A working plan is simply an extension and development of 
the preliminary plan, based upon more exact data. Such a plan 
should ultimately be prepared for every forest as the need for 
a more systematic basis of management becomes urgent. Re- 
connaissance work should, except in unusual cases, result in 
working plans. 

Working plans will be prepared first on forests where the 
demand for timber is great as compared with the supply, and 
where large quantities of timber are evidently mature and it is 
reasonably certain that sales can be made if the proper data 
are secured. It may be advisable to prepare special working 
plans for forests on which large areas are in need of reforesta- 
tion. Special grazing working plans may be prepared for forests 
where the use of forage resources is of importance. Special 
problems in any other phase of service work demanding careful 
study may require the preparation of working plans. Where 
conditions on a forest differ widely, it may be advisable to cover 
only the part of a forest to which the special administrative 
urgency applies. 

Each working plan will outline the general management of 
the forest for a long period, usually a rotation in the recommen- 
dations on timber cuttings, and the management in detail for 
some such period as 10 or 15 years. 

The amount of detail in the working plan will depend upon 
the value of the forest products concerned, the need for inten- 
sive methods, and the certainty or possibility of large returns 
within the probable life of the plan. On forests or parts of 
forests where the demand for timber equals or exceeds the 
amount which can be cut with safety, the plan for silvicultural 
management must be in much greater detail than where the 
demand is comparatively small. The requirements of detail in 





> 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 209 

'the different parts of the plan and in different working units 
must be adjusted to the administrative needs of the forest in 
all lines of work. 

When it has been decided to make a working plan, its essen- 
tial features and the field-work necessary should be outlined 
at a conference between the officer who will have charge of the 
field-work, the supervisor of the forest, the assistant district 
foresters concerned, and the district forester at his discretion. 
It is particularly necessary that the general system or systems 
of management be determined, and the methods for determin- 
ing the yield of each unit be decided upon. Plans may then be 
made to secure the exact data needed and unnecessary work 
eliminated. The preliminary plan for the forest and working 
plans already prepared will form the basis for this discussion. 

Field data will in general be obtained by special* parties, 
which as far as possible should consist of experienced men. As 
far as possible, the data for all parts of the plan will be collected 
at the same time, if necessary by specialists temporarily assigned 
to the party. The data for planting or grazing features may 
be collected independently when the need justifies it. The 
work will be done under the direction of the supervisor. 

As far as possible all data in the working-plan report will be 
tabulated with brief notes of necessary explanation. While 
working plans must be complete, every possible effort will be 
made to eliminate unnecessary discussion and to put them in 
concise form. All detailed data relating to climate, geology, 
soil, growth studies, silvical notes, etc., should be placed in the 
appendix of the working plan, and everything in the plan sub- 
ordinated to the actual scheme of management for the forest. 

Working plans will be approved by the forester. 

The general ground to be covered by working plans is as 
follows: 

Under "General Administration''' the topics listed for pre- 
liminary plans should be discussed with such further detail as 
more intensive study makes possible. 

Under " Sihicultural management" the topics listed for pre- 

14 



210 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

liminary plans should be developed with much greater accuracy 
and in much greater detail. 

To secure uniform data from the national forests in each 
district, the district forester will decide upon standard field 
methods. Standardization will include : 

i. Methods of making estimates under specified conditions 
to secure results of uniform accuracy. 

2. The unit for recording estimates in both surveyed and 
unsurveyed ground. 

3. The minimum sizes to which timber will be estimated and 
a method of classifying reproduction and young timber below 
this minimum. 

4. A scale for field and base maps and the conditions under 
which contour or hachure maps will be made. 

5. The form and character of notes on silvicultural ques- 
tions, forest descriptions, etc. 

6. The principles upon which the silvicultural system, the 
rotation, the period for which management will be planned in 
detail, etc. 

In each district, also, to insure reasonable uniformity under 
similar conditions, a careful study will be made of the methods 
of determining the limitation of annual cut under each silvi- 
cultural system which will be used, and standard methods 
established. 

In the completed plan the data secured under each topic 
will be summarized and the conclusions stated. The following 
points are of special importance : 

1. Silvicultural systems based on the most reliable silvical 
data available, and upon careful observations on the part of 
the working-plans officer (i.e., the forest organizer). 

2. A carefully drawn set of marking principles (marking 
rules) designed to put into effect the silvicultural systems rec- 
ommended. 

3. The maximum annual cut to be allowed during the ensu- 
ing 10 or 15 years, and the approximate cuts for each period of 
the rotation. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 211 

4. The order in which the important bodies of merchantable 
timber should be sold. 

5. The order in which areas needing artificial restocking 
should be sowed or planted, and the acreage to be covered dur- 
ing each year of the period for which detailed recommendations 
are made. 

Under "Grazing," technical reconnaissance and special studies 
should be conducted, following the general ground covered under 
preliminary plans, but with more detail and greater exactness; 
it should be directed as far as practicable by grazing experts. 

The permanent improvement plan, protection plan, and plan 
for uses of forest land for the forest should be considered and 
developed as far as may be practicable in connection with the 
intensive timber estimates and other investigations conducted 
by working-plan parties. 

ANNUAL PLANS 

The annual reports, estimates, and recommendations sub- 
mitted on the various lines of forest work should be based upon 
the preliminary or working plan for the forest and should refer 
specifically to the portions of the plan dealing with the subject 
in question. They should show how far it is feasible to apply 
the plan to the work of the forest during the current or ensuing 
year, the specific action proposed to put its provisions into effect, 
and the changes which appear advisable. 

Annual recommendations on maximum and minimum stump- 
age prices and limitation of yearly cut should be submitted to 
the district forester. These and the planting and nursery 
reports should refer to the portion of the plan dealing with sil- 
vicultural management and indicate any necessary changes in its 
application. Revisions of the cutting methods advocated in 
the plan and of other features of its silvicultural management 
should be submitted whenever they appear advisable, together 
with any additional data secured on estimates, logging costs, 
market conditions, etc. 



212 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 

The annual grazing report and recommendations constitute 
a concise restatement of the preliminary or working plan and 
its application to the business of the ensuing year. Additional 
data should be reported and necessary changes from the plan 
noted. 

In submitting the annual improvement estimates a copy of 
the improvement map of the forest, showing the plan as revised 
and extended to date and indicating the work of greatest urgency, 
should be furnished. 

In connection with the annual fire report, the fire plan for 
the forest should be checked over and necessary modifications 
noted. The annual planting and nursery reports should in- 
clude a current revision and application of the portions of the 
protection plan dealing with rodents. Special reports and revi- 
sions of the forest plan as regards protection from insects and 
diseases will be submitted from time to time on forests where 
this work is of importance. 

In connection with the current business and periodical re- 
ports relating to uses of forest land, the preliminary or working 
plan should be steadily revised and extended. 

The application of the foregoing instructions has been worked 
out by each of the districts. The proposed outline for the plan 
of silvicultural management, as worked out in the Southwestern 
district, follows. This outline is in skeleton form, so as to give 
an idea of the bulk and character of the plan in its final form. 
It is to be used in the preparation of both preliminary and 
final working plans. When all, or the majority, of the chapters 
have been completed in satisfactory final form, the plan will 
be submitted to the forester for approval as a forest working 
plan. The outline follows the instructions of the manual (see 
above) that a plan should consist just so far as possible of tables 
and maps. Most of the tables provide for the entry of records 
in future years. A two-inch margin will be left at the right of 
all text throughout the plan for the purpose of allowing notes 
to be made from time to time. Tables will, however, extend 
the width of the page. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



213 



The entire plan for each forest is to be bound in a cover and 
will contain only the strictly necessary information; all sup- 
plementary or basic data will be filed in a separate file for forest 
plans. The forest plan thus bound will serve as a hand-book 
of the forest. Two copies are prepared: one for the super- 
visor's office; the other for the district forester. It is aimed to 
keep the plans up to date by penned notes in the blank spaces 
which may, as a rule, simply refer to correspondence or reports 
which alter the plan or supplement it. Every few years the 
plan may be typewritten and all of these changes incorporated 
in the text or tables. 



OUTLINE FOR PLAN OF SILVICULTURAL 
MANAGEMENT 



TIMBER ESTIMATES BY DIVISIONS 


Division 


Sawtimber 
(M. ft. B. M.) 


Cordwood 
(Cords) 


• 













Notes. — Explain above divisions. Make reference to township or section sheets if available. 
Tabulate estimates by natural divisions, technical division (or compartment), Ranger districts, or 
watersheds, according to data available and with view to homogeneous units of management. 



214 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



TIMBER ESTIMATE IN DETAIL 
Division * 



Block f 


Township 


Species 


















Total... . 








' 







* Handle subjects under Silvicultural Management for each division in greater or less detail 
according to data available for each. A division which is a distinct unit and for which a sustained 
yield is desirable, independent of the remainder of the forest, may be treated separately so as to avoid 
confusion. 

t Or watershed, or ranger district. 



FOREST TYPES 
Division 



Type 


Area 


Sawtimber 
M. ft. B. M.) 


Cordwood 
(Cords) 










Total 













Notes. — Brief comments or descriptions of types where necessary because of unusual features. 
Refer to type map if there is one. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 215 



OBJECT OF MANAGEMENT' 
Timber Types: f 



Woodland Types: 



SILVICULTURAL SYSTEM \ 



Description: 



Application: 



Marking Rules. 

* Separately for each division if desirable. 

t State objects briefly, also species to be favored and classes of material to be produced. 

j By types, and by divisions if necessary. 



216 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



REGULATION OF YIELD 



Rotation: 
Division of Forest: 

Annual or Periodic Cut. 



REGULATION OF CUT* 

Limitation of annual cut for first period. 

Cutting plan for period by years, with proper references to cutting map. 
Tabulate amount to be cut each year. 

Unless forest or division has been covered by reconnaissance, it will probably be necessary to confine 
cutting plan to a few ensuing years — 4 to 10. 



Record of Regulation — Separately for Sawtimber and Cordwood. 



Year 


Total Merchant- 
able Stand 


Estimtd. 

Annual 

Yield 


Limit'n 
of Cut 
(Secre- 
tary's) 


Timber Cut 


Surplus 
(+)or 
Deficit 

(-)in 
Allowed 
Annual 
Cut (t) 


Accum- 
ulated 
Surplus 


Sale 


Free 
Use 


Total 


(+)or 

Deficit 

(-) 





















* By divisions if desirable. This subject should be handled in greater or less detail according 
to available data. 

t Based on Estimated Annual Yield. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 217 



POLICY 



Division 



Protection: 
Importance of any special areas for protection. Refer to cutting map on which reserved areas 
should be shown. 



Free Use: 

Brief notes on volume of free use business, past, present, and future; character of material used; 
localities, etc. Any exceptions to general policy, or special points of importance. Refer to 
cutting map for free use areas. 



Sales: 
Any necessary comments on sales policy. Opportunities for desirable sales. 

STUMPAGE RATES 
Rates recommended with brief statement of reasons. Provision for future increase. 





Sawtimber 
(M. ft. B. M. 


Cordwood 
(Cords) 


Poles 
(Linear ft.) 


Lagging 
(each) 









































218 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



UTILIZATION * 
Cutting Prior to Creation of Forest: 

Brief notes. Acreage cut over by types, if possible. Amount cut. Refer to map showing cut- 
over areas. 



Methods of Logging: 



* Confine treatment of this subject to brief notes summarizing conditions. References to more 
detailed data should be listed in Appendix. 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 219 



Accessibility of Timber: 

Include reference to improvements needed to open up timber stands. 



Costs of Logging and Manufacture: 



Markets, Market Conditions. Demand, Prices: 



220 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



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THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



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224 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



PLANTING * 



Areas Needing Restocking: 



Character 


Type 


Location 


Area 


Per cent of 
Forest Area 










• 


Total 











Notes. — Make reference to proper map showing planting and sowing areas. Location of areas 
should usually be done by Timber Reconnaissance parties. 



Summary of Results of Past Planting a;:d Snwijy - 



Policy: 
Brief statement of character of work proposed. 



* Details of tabulated plan for a period of years not necessary. Operations for ensuing year 
will be covered in annual plan after plan for district is formulated. 



Policy: 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OP WORKING PLANS 225 



■ Nursery, 



Equipment. 



Area in Seed Beds 



Area in Transplant Beds 
Total Area 



NURSERIES 



Capacity — Seedlings 
Transplants 

Proposed Annual Production 
Species 



Total 



15 



226 



THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING PLANS 



TIMBER RECONNAISSANCE 



Portions of Forest Covered: 



Division 


Block 


Area 


Year 


Timberland 
or Woodland 


Cost 
Per Acre 















Portions to be Covered in Order of Importance: 





Block 


Area 


Year 


Timberland 
or Woodland 


Cost 


Division 


Proposed 


Actual 


Estimated 


Actual 



















Notes: 



Silvical Studies: 
Past. 



INVESTIGATIONS ' 



Proposed. 



Reforestation Experiments t 



* List studies and experiments approved by investigative committee and also any others which 
appear desirable for future attention. 

t If covered under Planting, make suitable reference. 



INDEX 

Abnormal forests, regulation of, 104 

Administrative divisions, 25 

Administrative plan, instructions for, 203, 209 

outline for, 126, 198 
Age classes, general classification, 5 

in selection forest, 5 

size of, 4 

table of, 29 

table of, in Austria, 183, 186 
Allison, J. H., 15 

Allowed annual cut (see regulation of yield) 

Amenagement (see working plans, practice of, in France) i'syn. forest organ- 
ization) 
Annual plans (see working plans, also cutting plan and planting plan) 

instructions for, in United States, 211 
Area, determination of yield by, 44 
Auhagen, 92 
Austrian formula, determination of yield by, 52, 180, 200 

Base lines (see also timber estimates), 10 

Block (see also division of area), 20 

Breymann's method, determination of yield by, 61 

Brush disposal, place of in working plan (see also marking rules), 120 

Bukowina, forest organization in, 180, 185 

Bureau of Forestry, 190 

Collection of data (see also reconnaissance) 

in Baden, 165 

in Bavaria, 157 

in United States, instructions for, 209 

preliminary work, 8 

survey of area, 9 
Compartment (see also division of area), 20, 21 
Control and revision (see working plans, control and revision of) 
Control book, 133 

in Austria, 187 

in Prussia, 143 
Cotta, Heinrich, 92, 160 

Coupes (see also determination of yield, in France), 176 
Cutting and logging rules, place of in working plan, 121 
Cutting and planting record (see control book) 

997 



228 INDEX 

Cutting cycle, record of in working plan (see also rotation), 120 
Cutting plan, 97, 100 

annual, 103, 121 

general, 101, 121 

in Bavaria, 155 

in France, 174 

in Prussia, 139 

place of in revisions, 136 

place of in working plan, 121 
Cutting series, 99 

in Saxony, 162 

Department of Agriculture, 190 

Secretary of, 201 
Determination of yield, 43 

by area, 44 

by area and volume by age classes, 81, 82, 84 

by area and volume by periods, 89 

by area and volume for entire forest, 78 

by volume on diameter classes, 66 

by volume on growing stock, 47, 49 

by volume on growing stock and increment, 52, 55, 59 

by volume on increment, 49 

in Austria, 185 

in France, 66, 172, 176 

in United States, 198 

record of in working plan, 12 1 

review of methods, 94 

summary of methods, 43 
Diameter-class method, determination of yield by, 75 

application to America, 78 
Direct method, determination of yield by, 81 
Distribution of the age classes, 1, 4 

advantages of comparison between actual and normal, 7 

graphic comparison of actual with normal, 7 

record of in working plan (see also tables), 116, 121, 136 
Distribution of yield, 96 

in France, 175 
District Forester, 200, 213 
Division of area, 20 

block, 20, 21 

boundaries of, 23, 25 

coincidence with administrative divisions, 25 

compartment, 20, 21 

designations of, 23 

in Alsace-Lorraine, 168 



INDEX 

Division of area in Austria, 180 
in Bavaria, 148, 151 
in France, 172 
in Prussia, 140 
in Saxony, 160 
principles of, 20 
record of in working plan, 1 19 
subcompartment (stand), 20, 21 
working figure, 20 

Estimates (see timber estimates) 

Fernow, B. E., see Introduction, p. xii 
Fire plan (see forest protection plan) 
Forest adjustment (syn. forest organization) 
Forest description, 17 

essentials of, 17 
in Alsace-Lorraine, 169 
in Austria, 184 
in France, 173 

record of in working plan, 119 
unit of, 19 
Forest organization 

control of, in Austria, 180 
in Bavaria, 157 
in Prussia, 142 
in Saxony, 159 

in United States, 191, 200, 201, 209, 212 
definition of, see Introduction, p. xi 
Forest organizer (see forest organization) 
Forest plan, see Introduction, p. xi 

section of National Forest Manual, 201 
instructions in, 202 et seq. 
issued, 201 
Forest protection plan, instructions for, 202, 207, 209, 212 

outline for, 126, 196 
Forest Service, 190 

Forest types, record of in working plan, 214 
Forsteinrichtung (syn. forest organization, which see) 
French method, determination of yield by, 66 

Graves, Henry S., 2 

Grazing management, plan of, instructions tor, 202, 205, 211, 212 

outline for, 126, 195 
Greeley, W. B., 106 
Growing stock, normal, I, 4 



229 



230 INDEX 

Growing stock, actual (see reconnaissance and timber estimates) record of, 

in working plan, 116 
Guzman, E., 185 

Hartig, G. L., 138 

Heyer's method, determination of yield by, 63 

application to America, 65 

Heyer, Carl, 65 

Heyer, Gustav, 65 

use in Alsace-Lorraine, 170 

use in Baden, 166 

use in United States, 200 
Hufnagl's methods of determining yield, 2, 49, 75, 81, 82, 83 

by age classes, 81, 82 

by current annual increment, 49 

by diameter classes, 75 

formula for determining the yield, 83 
application to America, 84 
Hundeshagen's method, determination of yield by, 59 

Increment, borer, use of, 2 

current annual, 3 

determination of, 1 

determination of yield by, 49 

importance of, 43 

mean annual, 3 

normal, 1 

record of in working plan, 116 
Indian method, determination of yield by, 72 
Investigations, record of, in working plan, 226 

Jagen (see working-plans practice, Prussia) 
Judeich, Friedrich, 53, 58, 59, 64, 84 

Kameraltaxe (see Austrian formula) 

Karl's method, determination of yield by, 55 

Limitation of annual cut (see regulation of yield) 
Logging unit (see also Block), 34 

Management, object of, 33, 37 

record of in working plan, 120, 215 
silvicultural, Introduction, p. xi 
silvicultural method of, 33, 35 

record of in working plan, 120, 215 
Manual of procedure, 200 



INDEX 231 

Maps and tables (see also tables), 28 

in working plan, 117 

of stands to be cut (see also cutting plan), 98 

sample sketch map, 27 
Markets, influence of on sustained yield, 34 
Market unit (see also working figure), 34 
Marking rules, place of in working plan, 120, 210, 215 

general, 199 
Martin, Heinrich, 43, 53, 58 
Masson, Methode de, 2, 49 
Methode de 1883 (see French method) 
Method of treatment, determination of, 33 
Moore, Barrington, 52, 66, 72 

National forest manual, 201 
National forests, 190, 191, 198 
New reconnaissance, the, 191 
Normal forest, its attributes, I 

Office of forest management, 191 
Office of silviculture, 200 
Organization (see forest organization) 

Paulsen (see also Hundeshagen), 60 

Period methods, determination of yield by, 89 

area-period method (syn. area framework, "flachenfachwerk"), 89 
area-and-volume-period method (syn. combined framework, "kombin- 
iertes fachwerk"), 91 
in Alsace-Lorraine, 169 
in Austria, 185 
in Baden, 164 
in Bavaria, 147 
in France, 173, 174 
in Prussia, 138 
in Saxony, 160 
in Wiirttemberg, 163 
volume-period method (syn. volume framework, "Massenfachwerk"), 90 
Period of regeneration, record of in working plan (see also method of manage- 
ment, silvicultural), 120 
Permanent improvement plan, instructions for, 202, 206, 21 1, 212 

outline for, 126, 197 
Planting plan, 128 

annual, 128, 130, 131 

general, 128, 129, 132 

place of in revisions, 135 

place of in working plan, 121, 224 



262 INDEX 

Preliminary plans, in Austria (Bukowina), 180 

in United States, 201, 203 
Prussia, practice of working plans in, 137 

Reconnaissance (see collection of data and timber estimates) 

estimates, method of, 14 

record of in working plan, 115, 226 

section of, 191, 199, 200 
Regulation, in selection forest, Alsace-Lorraine, 170 

in special cases, 104 

of transition forests, 106 

of turpentine forests, 108 

of wood-lots, 108. 

of yield, denned, 42 

record of in working plan, 121, 216 

unit of, 33 
Revisions (see working plans, control and revision of) 

in Alsace-Lorraine, 170 

in Austria, 186 

in Baden, 165 

in Bavaria, 156 

in Prussia, 142 

in Saxony, 162 

in United States, 213 
Rotation, 33, 38 

choice of, 40 

customary rotations in Europe, 41 

financial rotation (syn. of highest soil rent), 39 

in Austria, 186 

in Bavaria, 152 

in Prussia, 141 

latent rotation, 39 

of greatest income (syn. of highest forest rent), 39 

of greatest volume (syn. silvicultural rotation, economic rotation), 38 

physical rotation, 38 

record of in working plan, 120, 216 

technical rotation, 38 
Russian method, determination of yield by, 78 

Sale policy, 198, 200 

Schneider's formula, use or, 2 

Section of reconnaissance, 191, 199, 200 

Silvicultural management, plan of, instructions for, 204, 209, 211 

outline for, 193, 212 

system (see silvicultural method of management) 
Stand (see also subcompartment), 20, 21 



INDEX 233 

Stand, basis of differentiation, 22 

selection of stands to be cut (see also cutting plan), 97 
Stand method, determination of yield by, 84 

application to America, 89 

table (see tables) 
Statistics, record of in working plan, 220, 221, 222, 223 
Strip surveys (see also timber estimates), 12, 192 
Stumpage rates, minimum, 199, 200 

place of in working plan, 121, 217 

standard, 200 
Subcompartment (see also division of area, and stand), 20, 21 
Survey of area (see also collection of data), 9 
Sustained yield, application of, 34 

relation to increment, 43 

total for national forests, 201 

Tables (see also maps and tables) 

age-class table, 29; examples of, 31, 3 2 . 

alienation table, 29 

area tables, 29 

general stand table, example of, 29 

in Austria, 184 

in Prussia, 139 

place of in working plan, 117 
instructions for tabulations, United States, 209 
stand tables, 29 . 

Timber estimates (see also collection of data and reconnaissance) 

base lines, 10 

cost of, 17 

in Austria, 182 

in Bavaria, 150 

in United States, 191, 192, 213.. 214 

ocular estimates (see also reconnaissance), 13 

requisites, 10 

size of crew, 12 

the strips, 12 

time of, 16 
Transition forest, regulation of, 106 
Turpentine forest, regulation of, 108 

number of crops operative annually, 112 

Use per cent (see Hundeshagen's method) 

Uses of forest land, instructions for, 202, 207, 211, 212 

outline for plan of, 127, 196 
Utilization, record of in working plan, 218 



234 INDEX 

Von Grebe, 92 

Von Mantel's method, determination of yield by, 2, 47, 200 

Von Stockhausen, 92 

Wood-lots, regulation of, 108 

Woolsey, T. S., Jr., 200 

Working block (see working figure) 

Working circle (see working figure) 

Working figure (see also division of area), 20, 33 

Working period, 121, 133, 208 

Working plans 

conference, 8, 136, 158 

record of in plan, 116, 136, 209 
control and revision of, 133 
documents, 113 

contents and form, 113 
foundations of, 1 
outlines for, 122 

American outline, suggested, 124 
administrative plan, 126 
appendix, contents of, 127 
foiest protection plan, 126 
foundation, 125 
grazing plan, 126 
maps, 128 
orientation, 124 

permanent improvement plan, 126 
recommendations, 125 
regulation, 126 
uses of forest land, 127 
Forest service outline, 192 
Prussian outline, 122 
Saxon outline, 124 
ractice of, 137 

in Alsace-Lorraine, 167 

in America, 190; instructions for, 202, 203, 208, 211 
in Austria, 177 
in Baden, 164 
in Bavaria, 147 
in France, 171 
in Prussia, 137 
in Saxony, 159 
in Wiirttemberg, 163 
resume of, in Europe, 187 
scope of, Introduction, p. xi 
sphere of, Introduction, p. xii 
value and need of, Introduction, p. xi 



index 235 

Working plans officer (see forest organizer) 

Yale forest school, Introduction, p. xii 

Yield, determination of (see determination of yield) 

Yield tables, use of in estimating, 17 

Zon, Raphael, 78 



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Furman and Pardoe — Manual of Practical Assaying 8vo, 

Lodge — Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments . 8vo, 

Low — Technical Methods of Ore Analysis 8vo, 

Miller — Cyanide Process 12mo, 

Manual of Assaying 12mo, 

Minet — Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo). . 12mo, 
Price and Meade — The Technical Analysis of Brass and the Non-Ferrous 

Alloys 12mo, 

Ricketts and Miller — Notes on Assaying 8vo, 

Robine and Lenglen — Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.) 8vo, 

Seamon — Manual for Assayers and Chemists Small 8vo, 

2 



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Ulke — Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, S3 00 

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ASTRONOMY. 

Comstock — Field Astronomy for Engineers 8vo, 2 50 

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BIOLOGY. 

Cohnheim — Enzymes 12mo, *1 50 

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3 



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$2 00 
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*1 25 
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5 



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CIVIL ENGINEERING. 



BRIDGES AND ROOFS, HYDRAULICS, MATERIALS OF ENGINEER- 
ING. RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 

American Civil Engineers' Pocket Book. (Mansfield Merriman, 

Editor-in-chief.) 16mo, mor.,*$5 00 

Baker — Engineers' Surveying Instruments 12mo, 3 00 

Bixby — Graphical Computing Table Paper 19j X24J inches, 25 

Breed and Hosmer — Principles and Practice of Surveying. 

Vol. I. Elementary Surveying 8vo, 3 00 

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Burr — Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal 8vo, *3 50 

Comstock — Field Astronomy for Engineers Svo, 2 50 

Cortiiell — Allowable Pressure on Deep Foundations 12mo, *1 25 

Crandall — Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares 8vo, '3 00 

Davis — Elevation and Stadia Tables Svo, 1 00 

Elliott — Engineering for Land Drainage 12mo, 2 00 

Fiebeger — Treatise on Civil Engineering 8vo, *5 00 

Flemer — Phototopographic Methods and Instruments 8vo, 5 00 

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Freitag — Architectural Engineering 8vo, 3 50 

Hauch and Rice — Tables of Quantities for Preliminary Estimates. . . 12mo, *1 25 

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Howe — Retaining Walls for Earth 12mo, 1 25 

Ives — Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level 16mo, bds., *0 25 

Ives and Hilts — Problems in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geod- 
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Johnson (J. B.) and Smith — Theory and Practice of Surveying . Small 8vo, *3 50 

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Merriman and Brooks — Handbook for Surveyors 16mo, mor., 2 00 

Nugent — Plane Surveying Svo, 3 50 

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Ogden and Cleveland — Practical Methods of Sewage Disposal for Resi- 
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Reed — Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, 5 00 

Riemer — Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele.) 

8vo, 3 00 

Siebert and Biggin — Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry Svo, 1 50 

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Soper — Air and Ventilation of Subways 12mo, 2 50 

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Sheep, 6 50 

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Architecture 8vo, 5 00 

Sheep, 5 50 

Warren — Stereotomy — Problems in Stone-cutting 8vo, 2 50 

Waterbury — Vest-Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers. 

2| X5f inches, mor., *1 00 

Enlarged Edition, Including Tables mor., *1 50 

Webb — Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments. 

16mo, mor., 1 25 
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6 



BRIDGES AND ROOFS. 

Bishop — Structural Details of Hip and Valley Rafters... Oblong large 8vo. *S1 75 
Boller — Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges 

8vo, 2 00 

Thames River Bridge Oblong paper, *5 00 

Burr and Falk — Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges 8vo, 5 00 

Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations 8vo, 3 00 

Du Bois — Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II Small 4to, 10 00 

Foster — Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, 5 00 

Fowler — Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50 

Greene — Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone 8vo, 2 50 

Bridge Trusses 8vo, 2 50 

Roof Trusses 8vo, 1 25 

Grimm — Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses 8vo, 2 50 

Heller — Stresses in Structures and the Accompanying Deformations . . 8vo, 3 00 

Howe — Design of Simple Roof -trusses in Wood and Steel 8vo, 2 00 

Symmetrical Masonry Arches 8vo, 2 50 

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Hudson — Deflections and Statically Indeterminate Stresses Small 4to, *3 50 

Plate Girder Design 8vo, *1 50 

Jacoby — Structural Details, or Elements of Design in Heavy Framing, 8vo, *2 25 
Johnson, Bryan and Turneaure — Theory and Practice in the Designing of 
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Part I. Stresses in Simple Structures 8vo, *3 00 

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8vo, *4 00 
Merriman and Jacoby — Text-book on Roofs and Bridges: 

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Part II. Graphic Statics , . . 8vo, 2 50 

Part III. Bridge Design 8vo, 2 50 

Part IV. Higher Structures Svo, 2 50 

Ricker — Design and Construction of Roofs 8vo, 5 00 

Sondericker — Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and 

Arches Svo, *2 00 

Waddell — De Pontibus, Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers. . . . 16mo, mor., 2 00 
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1 HYDRAULICS. 

Barnes — Ice Formation 8vo, 3 00 

Bazin — Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from 

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Bovey — Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 00 

Church — Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels. 

Oblong 4to, paper, 1 50 

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Coffin — Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems 16mo, mor., 2 50 

Flather — Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power 12mo, 3 00 

Folwell — Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 00 

Frizell — Water-power 8vo, 5 00 

Fuertes — Water and Public Health 12mo, 1 50 

Fuller — Domestic Water Supplies for the Farm Svo, *1 50 

Ganguillet and Kutter — General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water 

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Hazen — Clean Water and How to Get It Small 8vo, 1 50 

Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, 3 00 

Hazelh'urst — Towers and Tanks for Water-works 8vo, 2 50 

Herschel — 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, 

Metal Conduits 8vo, 2 00 

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Hubbard and Kiersted — Water-works Management and Maintenance, Svo, 4 00 
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7 



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Wilson — Irrigation Engineering 8vo, 4 00 

Wood — Turbines 8vo, 2 50 

MATERIALS OP ENGINEERING. 

Baker — Roads and Pavements 8vo, 5 00 

Treatise on Masonry Construction 8vo, 5 00 

Black — United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 5 00 

Blanchard — Bituminous Surfaces and Bituminous Pavements. (In Preparation.) 

and Drowne — Highway Engineering, as Presented at the Second 

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Bottler — German and American Varnish Making. (Sabin.) . . . Small 8vo, *3 50 

Burr — Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering 8vo, 7 50 

Byrne — Highway Construction , 8vo, 5 00 

Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction. 

16mo, 3 00 
Church — Mechanics of Engineering Svo, 6 00 

Mechanics of Solids (Being Parts I, II, III of Mechanics of Engineer- 
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Mechanics of Fluids (Being Part IV of Mechanics of Engineering) . 8vo, 3 00 
Du Bois — Mechanics of Engineering: > 

Vol. I. Kinematics, Statics, Kinetics Small 4to, 7{50 

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Theory of Flexures Small 4to, 10 00 

Eckel — Building Stones and Clays 8vo, *3 00 

Cements, Limes, and Plasters 8vo, *6 00 

Fowler — Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50 

Fuller and Johnston — Applied Mechanics: 

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Greene — Structural Mechanics 8vo, *2 50 

Holley — Analysis of Paint and Varnish Products Small 8vo, *2 50 

Lead and Zinc Pigments Small 8vo, *3 00 

Hubbard — Dust Preventives and Road Binders 8vo, *3 00 . 

Johnson (J. B.) — Materials of Construction Large 8vo, 6 00 

Keep— Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 

King — Elements of the Mechanics of Materials and of Power of Transmis- 
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Lanza — Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 

Lowe — Paints for Steel Structures 12mo, 1 00 

Maire — Modern Pigments and their Vehicles 12mo, 2 00 

M aurer — Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 

Merrill — Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 5 00 

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Strength of Materials 12mo, *1 00 

Metcalf — Steel. A Manual for Steel-users 12mo, 2 00 

Morrison — Highway Engineering Svo, 2 50 

Murdock — Strength of Materials 12mo, *2 00 

Patton — Practical Treatise on Foundations 8vo, 5 00 

Rice — Concrete Block Manufacture Svo, 2 00 

Richardson — Modern Asphalt Pavement 8vo, 3 00 

Richey — Building Foreman's Pocket Book and Ready Reference. 16mo,mor., 5 00 

Cement Workers' and Plasterers' Edition (Building Mechanics' Ready 

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Handbook for Superintendents of Construction 16mo, mor., 4 00 

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s 



RlES — Building Stones and Clay Products.. 8vo.*53 00 

Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses 8vo, *5 00 

and Leighton — History of the Clay-working Industry of the United 

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Sabin — Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish 8vo, 3 00 

Smith — Strength of Material 12mo, *1 25 

Snow — Principal Species of Wood 8vo, 3 50 

Spalding — Hydraulic Cement 12mo, 2 00 

Text-book on Road and Pavements 12mo, *2 00 

Taylor and Thompson — Concrete Costs Small 8vo, *5 00 

Extracts on Reinforced Concrete Design 8vo, *2 00 

Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced 8vo, 5 00 

Thurston — Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo, 8 00 

Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy. . .8vo, 2 00 

Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 

Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 

Constituents 8vo, 2 50 

Tillson — Street Pavements and Paving Materials Svo, *4 00 

Turneaure and Maurer — Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction. 

8vo, 3 50 

Waterbury — Cement Laboratory Manual 12mo, 1 00 

Laboratory Manual for Testing Materials of Construction 12mo, *1 50 

Wood (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on 

the Preservation of Timber Svo, 2 00 

(M. P.) — Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and 

Steel Svo, 4 00 

RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 

Berg — Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 00 

Brooks — Handbook of Street Railroad Location 16mo, mor., 1 50 

Burt — Railway Station Service 12mo, *2 00 

• Butts — Civil Engineer's Field-book 16mo, mor., 2 50 

Crandall — Railway and Other Earthwork Tables 8vo, 1 50 

and Barnes — Railroad Surveying 16mo, mor., 2 00 

Crockett — Methods for Earthwork Computations Svo, *1 50 

Dredge — History of the Pennsylvania Railroad. (1S79) Paper, 5 00 

Fish — Earthwork Haul and Overhaul {In Press.) 

Fisher — Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25 

Gilbert, Wightman and Saunders — Subways and Tunnels of New York. 

8vo, *4 00 

Godwin — Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide . .16mo, mor., 2 50 
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Embankments Svo, 1 00 

Ives and Hilts — Problems in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geodesy. 

16mo, mor., 1 50 

Molitor and Beard — Manual for Resident Engineers 16mo, 1 03 

Nagle — Field Manual for Railroad Engineers 16mo, mor., 3 00 

Orrock — Railroad Structures and Estimates Svo, *3 00 

Philbrick — Field Manual for Engineers 16mo, mor., 3 00 

Raymond — Elements of Railroad Engineering Svo, 3 50 

Railroad Engineer's Field Book {In Preparation.) 

Railroad Field Geometry 16mo, mor., 2 00 

Roberts — Track Formula? and Tables 16mo, mor., 3 00 

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Webb — Economics of Railroad Construction Small Svo, 2 50 

Railroad Construction lfimo, mor., 5 00 

Wellington — Economic Theory of the Location of Railways.. . .Small Svo, 5 00 

Wilson — Elements of Railroad-Track and Construction 12mo, 2 00 



DRAWING. 



Barr and Wood — Kinematics of Machinery 8vo 

Bartlett — Mechanical Drawing. Third Edition Svo 

" Abridgment of the Second Edition. . . .Svo 

and Johnson — Engineering Descriptive Geometry 8vo 

Bishop — Structural Details of -Hip and Valley Rafters. . . .Oblong large 8vo 

Blessing and Darling — Descriptive Geometry. 8vo 

Elements of Drawing Svo 

Coolidge — Manual of Drawing Svo, paper 

and Freeman — Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engineers 

Oblong 4to 

Durley — Kinematics of Machines 8vo 

Emch — Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Application Svo 

French and Ives — Stereotomy 8vo 

Hill — Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective Svo 

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10 



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16 



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17 



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18 



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